History of computing hardware: Difference between revisions

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In the 21st century, [[multi-core]] CPUs became commercially available.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shrout |first=Ryan |date=2 December 2009 |website=PC Perspective |url=https://pcper.com/2009/12/intel-shows-48-core-x86-processor-as-single-chip-cloud-computer/ |title=Intel Shows 48-core x86 Processor as Single-chip Cloud Computer|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100814203128/http://www.pcper.com/article.php?aid=825 |archive-date=2010-08-14 |url-status=live |access-date=2020-12-02}}<br/>{{*}}{{cite web |date=3 December 2009 |title=Intel unveils 48-core cloud computing silicon chip |work=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8392392.stm |access-date=2009-12-03 |archive-date=2012-12-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121206054225/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8392392.stm |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Content-addressable memory]] (CAM){{sfn|Kohonen|1980|p={{pn|date=August 2023}}}} has become inexpensive enough to be used in networking, and is frequently used for on-chip [[cache memory]] in modern microprocessors, although no computer system has yet implemented hardware CAMs for use in programming languages. Currently, CAMs (or associative arrays) in software are programming-language-specific. Semiconductor memory cell arrays are very regular structures, and manufacturers prove their processes on them; this allows price reductions on memory products. During the 1980s, [[CMOS]] [[logic gates]] developed into devices that could be made as fast as other circuit types; computer power consumption could therefore be decreased dramatically. Unlike the continuous current draw of a gate based on other logic types, a CMOS gate only draws significant current, except for leakage, during the 'transition' between logic states.{{sfn|Mead|Conway|1980|pp=11-36}}

CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a [[commodity]]fungible resource which is now ubiquitous, embedded in [[embedded system|many forms]], from greeting cards and [[Mobile phone|telephone]]s to [[Satellite communications#History|satellites]]. The [[thermal design power]] which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation. In 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total energy budget of the U.S.<ref>{{cite report |date=2007 |title=Energystar report |page=4 |url=https://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |access-date=2013-08-18 |archive-date=2013-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022230644/http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |url-status=live }}</ref> The energy consumption of computer data centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011. The [[System on a chip|SoC]] (system on a chip) has compressed even more of the [[integrated circuit]]ry into a single chip; SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single hand-held wireless [[mobile computing|mobile device]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Walt |last=Mossberg |date=9 July 2014 |url=https://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/ |title=How the PC is merging with the smartphone |access-date=2014-07-09 |url-status=live |archive-date=2014-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709183504/http://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/}}</ref>

{{anchor|quantum computing}}[[Quantum computing]] is an emerging technology in the field of computing. ''MIT Technology Review'' reported 10 November 2017 that IBM has created a 50-[[qubit]] computer; currently its quantum state lasts 50 microseconds.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609451/ibm-raises-the-bar-with-a-50-qubit-quantum-computer/ |first=Will |last=Knight |work=MIT Technology Review |date=10 November 2017 |title=IBM Raises the Bar with a 50-Qubit Quantum Computer |access-date=2017-11-10 |url-status=live |archive-date=2017-11-19 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171119050702/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609451/ibm-raises-the-bar-with-a-50-qubit-quantum-computer/}}</ref> Google researchers have been able to extend the 50 microsecond time limit, as reported 14 July 2021 in ''Nature'';<ref name=quantumErrorCorrection/> stability has been extended 100-fold by spreading a single logical qubit over chains of data qubits for [[quantum error correction]].<ref name=quantumErrorCorrection>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03588-y |doi-access=free |collaboration=Google Quantum AI |author=Julian Kelly |display-authors=etal |date=15 July 2021 |title=Exponential suppression of bit or phase errors with cyclic error correction |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7867 |pages=383–387 |pmid=34262210 |pmc=8279951 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03588-y.pdf?pdf=button%20sticky}} Cited in {{cite web |author=Adrian Cho |date=14 July 2021 |title=Physicists move closer to defeating errors in quantum computation |magazine=Science |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/physicists-move-closer-defeating-errors-quantum-computation}}</ref> ''Physical Review X'' reported a technique for 'single-gate sensing as a viable readout method for spin qubits' (a singlet-triplet spin state in silicon) on 26 November 2018.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Single-Shot Single-Gate rf Spin Readout in Silicon |first1=P. |last1=Pakkiam |first2=A. V. |last2=Timofeev |first3=M. G. |last3=House |first4=M. R. |last4=Hogg |first5=T. |last5=Kobayashi |first6=M. |last6=Koch |first7=S. |last7=Rogge |first8=M. Y. |last8=Simmons |date=26 November 2018 |journal=Physical Review X |volume=8 |issue=4 |at=041032 |via=APS |doi=10.1103/PhysRevX.8.041032 |arxiv=1809.01802 |bibcode=2018PhRvX...8d1032P |s2cid=119363882}}</ref> A Google team has succeeded in operating their RF pulse modulator chip at 3&nbsp;[[kelvin]]s, simplifying the cryogenics of their 72-qubit computer, which is set up to operate at 0.3&nbsp;[[kelvin|K]]; but the readout circuitry and another driver remain to be brought into the cryogenics.<ref name=72qubits>{{cite web |first=Samuel K. |last=Moore |work=IEEE Spectrum |date=13 March 2019 |title=Google Builds Circuit to Solve One of Quantum Computing's Biggest Problems |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/google-team-builds-circuit-to-solve-one-of-quantum-computings-biggest-problems |access-date=2019-03-14 |archive-date=2019-03-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314213116/https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-talk/semiconductors/design/google-team-builds-circuit-to-solve-one-of-quantum-computings-biggest-problems |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|name=ibmEagle |IBM's 127-qubit computer cannot be simulated on traditional computers.<ref name=127qubits>{{cite web |author=Ina Fried |date=14 Nov 2021 |url=https://www.axios.com/ibm-quantum-computing-axios-hbo-bd9d50b7-3c11-4586-bdb1-8bbc9928ad1b.html |title=Exclusive: IBM achieves quantum computing breakthrough |website=Axios |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211115133314/https://www.axios.com/ibm-quantum-computing-axios-hbo-bd9d50b7-3c11-4586-bdb1-8bbc9928ad1b.html |archive-date=2021-11-15 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} ''See: [[Quantum supremacy]]''<ref>{{cite web |first=Russ |last=Juskalian |date=22 February 2017 |title=Practical Quantum Computers |url=https://mittr-frontend-prod.herokuapp.com/s/603495/10-breakthrough-technologies-2017-practical-quantum-computers/amp/ |work=MIT Technology Review|access-date=2020-12-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623193833/https://mittr-frontend-prod.herokuapp.com/s/603495/10-breakthrough-technologies-2017-practical-quantum-computers/amp/ |archive-date=2021-06-23 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=John D. |last=MacKinnon |date=19 December 2018 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/congress-expected-to-pass-bill-spurring-quantum-computing-11545250595 |work=The Wall Street Journal |title=House Passes Bill to Create National Quantum Computing Program |access-date=2018-12-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181220084728/https://www.wsj.com/articles/congress-expected-to-pass-bill-spurring-quantum-computing-11545250595 |archive-date=2018-12-20 |url-status=live}}</ref> Silicon qubit systems have demonstrated [[quantum entanglement|entanglement]] at [[action at a distance|non-local]] distances.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://scitechdaily.com/quantum-computing-breakthrough-silicon-qubits-interact-at-long-distance/ |author=Princeton University |date=25 December 2019 |title=Quantum Computing Breakthrough: Silicon Qubits Interact at Long-Distance |work=SciTechDaily |access-date=2019-12-26 |archive-date=2019-12-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226165255/https://scitechdaily.com/quantum-computing-breakthrough-silicon-qubits-interact-at-long-distance/ |url-status=live}}</ref>