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Lo '''sciacallo dorato''' ('''''Canis aureus''''' <span style="font-variant: small-caps">[[Linnaeus]], [[1758]]</span>) è un [[Canidae|Canide]] di medie dimensioni diffuso in Africa settentrionale e nord-orientale, Europa sud-orientale e centrale (fino ad Austria e Ungheria) <ref name="lapini2">[http://www.canids.org/papers/canis%20aureus%2012_lapini%20et%20al%202009.pdf Lapini L., Molinari P., Dorigo L., Are G. & Beraldo P., 2009. Reproduction of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 1835) in Julian Pre-Alps, with new data on its range-expansion in the High-Adriatic Hinterland (Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae). Boll. Mus. Civ. St. nat. Venezia, 60 (2009): 169-186.]</ref>, Asia Minore, Medio Oriente e Asia sud-orientale. Viene classificato dalla [[IUCN]] tra le [[Lista rossa IUCN#Categorie|specie a rischio minimo]], dato che ha un vastissimo areale dove trova cibo e ripari in abbondanza<ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2008|assessors=Jhala, Y.V. & Moehlman, P.D.|year=2008|id=3744|title=Canis aureus|downloaded=22 March 2009}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is of least concern</ref> È una specie molto adattabile, essendo in grado di consumare quasi ogni fonte di cibo disponibile e di vivere in ambienti diversi, comprese le savane africane <ref name="kingdon"/> , le montagne del Caucaso <ref name="soviet"/> e le foreste dell'India <ref name="canid"/> . È il più grande tra tutti gli It is the largest of the [[jackal]]s, and the only species to occur outside Africa, with 13 different subspecies being recognised.<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3 Wozencraft | pages = 574 | id=14000704}}</ref> Although often grouped with the other jackals (the [[black-backed jackal]], and the [[side-striped jackal]]), genetic research indicates that the golden jackal is more closely related to the [[gray wolf]] and the [[coyote]].<ref name=genome>Lindblad-Toh ''et al.'' 2005. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v438/n7069/pdf/nature04338.pdf Genome sequence, comparative analysis and haplotype structure of the domestic dog.] Nature '''438''': 803-819.</ref> The genetic evidence is consistent with the form of the skull, which also bears more similarities to those of the latter two species than to those of other jackals.<ref name="GJ" /> The golden jackal is sometimes featured in the folklore and mythology of human cultures with which it is sympatric: in [[Indian folklore]], it is portrayed as a trickster, while in [[Ancient Egypt]]ian religion, it played a central role under the guise of [[Anubis]], the god of embalming. Once thought to have been the ancestor of some dog breeds,<ref name="lorenz"/> the golden jackal can be hybridised with domestic dogs,<ref name="india"/><ref name="sulimov1" /><ref name="sulimov2" /> with some modern authors stating that the species may have contributed to the breeding of Ancient Egyptian hunting hounds.<ref name="rice"/>
==Evolution==
Unlike other jackal species which are African in origin,<ref name="genome"/> the golden jackal, like the [[wolf]],<ref name=HiPS>{{cite web | title= Smithsonian National Zoological Park | work= Hiding in Plain Sight | url = http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/SpotlightOnScience/fleischer2003108.cfm | accessdate = August 19, 2006 }}</ref> likely emerged from Asia.<ref name="genome"/> The direct ancestor of the golden jackal is thought to be ''Canis kuruksaensis'', a Villafranchian (from late [[Pliocene]] to early [[Pleistocene]]<ref>{{cite doi|dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2010.01.007}}</ref>) canid native to [[Tadjikistan]]. Another prehistoric canid initially thought to be an ancestral jackal, ''Canis arnensis'' which was native to Europe, was later classed as more closely related to the [[coyote]]. Golden jackals likely colonised the European continent during the late [[Pleistocene]].<ref name="mammiferi">{{it icon}}[http://www.minambiente.it/opencms/export/sites/default/archivio/biblioteca/protezione_natura/qcn_14.pdf ''Mammiferi d'Italia'' by Mario Spagnesi and Anna De Marina Marinis. Ministero dell' Ambiente e della Tutela del Territorio Direzione Conservazione della Natura, Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica "Alessandro Ghigi"]</ref>
==Physical description==
[[File:Jackalskull.jpg|thumb|left|Golden jackal skulls resemble those of wolves and coyotes more than other jackal species<ref name="GJ"/>]]
[[File:Canisanthusskull.jpg|thumb|Skull of a North African jackal. It differs from that of Asian jackals in the higher elevation between the [[Orbit (anatomy)|orbits]]]]
Golden jackals are medium sized canids, and are considered the most typical representative of the [[genus]] ''[[Canis]]''.<ref name="GJ"/> Golden jackals resemble wolves in general appearance, but are smaller, lighter, have proportionately shorter legs, have more elongated torsos and shorter tails.<ref name="soviet"/> The [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] is light or dark brownish. Females have five pairs of [[teat]]s.<ref name="soviet">Heptner, V. G and Naumov, N.P, (editors) ''Mammals of the Soviet Union Vol.II Part 1a, SIRENIA AND CARNIVORA (Sea cows; Wolves and Bears)'', Science Publishers, Inc. USA. 1998. ISBN 1-886106-81-9, pp. 129-64</ref> Golden jackals in India tend to have shorter ears than their North African cousins.<ref name="canid">''A monograph of the canidae'' by St. George Mivart, F.R.S, published by Alere Flammam. 1890</ref> Adults are 74–106 cm (29–42 in) long, 38–50 cm (15–20 in) high at the shoulder and weigh 7–15 kg (15-33 lb).<ref name="kingdon">''East African mammals: an atlas of evolution in Africa, Volume 3, Part 1'' by Jonathan Kingdon, University of Chicago Press, 1977</ref> There is a 12% weight difference between the sexes.<ref name="GJ"/> Unlike other jackal species, golden jackals can bare their fangs.<ref>''The Carnivores'' by R. F. Ewer, published by Cornell University Press, 1997, ISBN 0-8014-8493-6</ref> The tail is straighter, shorter and brushier than that of wolves.<ref name="guide">''A guide to the quadrupeds and reptiles of Europe : with descriptions of all the species'' by Lord Clermont, published byLondon : J. Van Voorst, 1859.</ref>
[[File:Volkshakal.JPG|thumb|Stuffed golden jackal and [[grey wolf]] at [[Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences|The Museum of Zoology]], [[St. Petersburg]]. Note the jackal's smaller size and narrower muzzle]]
Their [[skull]]s are less massively built than those of wolves, and have narrower and more pointed muzzles. The projections of the skull are well developed, but weaker than the wolf's.<ref name="soviet"/> In jackals, the anterior incisure of the [[nasal bone]]s has a medial protrusion, unlike wolves.<ref name="Paquet">{{cite book | author = Fred H. Harrington, [[Paul C. Paquet]] | title = Wolves of the World: Perspectives of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation | year = 1982 | isbn = 0815509057 | page = 474}}</ref> There are 18 characteristics which distinguish the skulls of golden jackals from those of domestic dogs; among them, the jackal has a smaller inflation of the [[Frontal bone|frontal region]], a shallower [[forehead]], smaller upward curvature of the [[zygomatic arch]]es and a longer and thinner [[lower jaw]].<ref name="holy">''Mammals of the Holy Land'' by Mazin B. Qumsiyeh, published by Texas Tech University Press, 1996, ISBN 0-89672-364-X</ref> Occasionally, they develop a [[Jackal's horn|horny growth]] on the skull which is associated with magical powers in south-eastern Asia. This horn usually measures half an inch in length, and is concealed by fur.<ref>''Sketches of the natural history of Ceylon'' by Sir James Emerson Tennent, published by Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, 1861</ref>
The teeth are similar to those of wolves, but are overall more trenchant in character, particularly in the upper molars, which have higher cusps, are more slender, and less [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/terete terete] than in wolves and their cutting ridges much more developed.<ref name="gerrit">[http://ia341026.us.archive.org/3/items/catalogueofmam00brit/catalogueofmam00brit.pdf ''Catalogue of the mammals of Western Europe (Europe exclusive of Russia) in the collection of the British museum'' by Gerrit Smith, (1912)]</ref> The [[canine teeth]] are thinner than the wolf's, and the [[carnassial]]s relatively weaker.<ref name="soviet"/> Also, the [[Cingulum (tooth)|cingulum]] on the external edge of the first upper molar is broader and more distinctly marked.<ref name="Paquet"/> North African jackals tend to have longer carnassials than those living in the Middle East.<ref name="CLAW">{{cite book | author= Macdonald, David | title=The Velvet Claw | year=1992 | isbn= 0563208449 | page= 256 }}</ref>
The winter fur is generally of a dirty reddish-grey colour, with blackish or rusty red tips on the guard hairs. The facial region, save for the muzzle, is ocherous-rusty-reddish, with a black stripe present above each eye. The lips, cheeks, chin and throat are dirty white. The outsides of the limbs are ocherous-red, with the insides being of a light colour. The summer fur is sparser, coarser and shorter, with the same colour as the winter coat, only brighter and less darkly tinted.<ref name="soviet"/><ref name="lapini1">LAPINI L., 2003 - Canis aureus (Linnaeus, 1758). In: BOITANI L., LOVARI S. & VIGNA TAGLIANTI A. (Curatori), 2003- Fauna d’Italia. Mammalia III. Carnivora-Artiodactyla. Calderini publ., Bologna: 47-58</ref> The hairs of the tail are 4 inches long and of a yellowish colour beneath, greyish above, and all tipped with black.<ref name="guide" /> Jackals living in mountainous regions may have a greyer shade of fur than their lowland counterparts,<ref name="GJ">{{cite web | title = Golden Jackal | work = | publisher = Canids.org | url = http://www.canids.org/species/Golden_jackal.pdf | accessdate = 2007-08-15}}</ref> and [[melanistic]] individuals have been reported.<ref name="kingdon" /> Jackals molt twice a year, in Spring and Autumn.<ref name="soviet"/> The colour and texture of the fur tends to vary geographically (see ''[[Golden Jackal#Fur use|Fur use]]'').<ref name="fur" />
==Behaviour==
===Reproduction and development===
[[File:Golden Jackal Revivim.jpg|thumb|A pair of [[Syrian jackal]]s (''C. a. syriacus'') in [[Israel]]]]
In the Trans-Caucasus, [[estrus]] begins in early February and during warm winters in late January. In [[Tajikistan]] and Uzbekistan, the rut extends to early March. [[Spermatogenesis]] in males occurs 10–12 days before the females enter estrus, and during this time, their [[testicle]]s triple in weight. Estrus lasts for 3–4 days. Females failing to mate during this time will undergo a loss of receptivity which lasts for 6–8 days. [[Mating]] occurs during daylight, and concludes with a copulatory tie. In Eurasian jackals, the tie lasts 20–45 minutes<ref name="soviet"/>, while in Africa it is only 4 minutes.<ref name="estes2"/> The pair are [[monogamous]], and will remain together until one of them dies. Males take part in the raising of their young, and will dig burrows for them. The [[gestation period]] lasts 60–63 days.<ref name="soviet"/>
In the Trans-Caucasus, cubs are usually born in late March and late April,<ref name="soviet"/> in North-Eastern Italy probably in late April,<ref name="lapini1"/>, in the Serengheti they are born in December and January,<ref name=estes2>''The behavior guide to African mammals: including hoofed mammals, carnivores, primates'' by Richard Estes, published by University of California Press, 1992, ISBN 0-520-08085-8</ref> while in Nepal, they are born at any time of the year.<ref name="nepal">''Mammals of Nepal: (with reference to those of India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Pakistan)'' by Tej Kumar Shrestha, published by Steven Simpson Books, 1997, ISBN 0-9524390-6-9</ref> Litters usually consist of 3-8 pups, which are born with shut eyelids and with soft fur which ranges in colour from light grey to dark brown. At the age of one month, their fur is shed and replaced with a new pelt of reddish colour with black speckles. The nursing period varies in length according to ___location: in the Caucasus, it lasts 50–70 days, while in Tajikistan, it can last 90 days. Cubs begin to eat meat at the age of 15–20 days, though they are rarely fed regurtitated food. Cubs have a fast [[growth rate]]: at the age of two days, they weigh 201-214 g, 560-726 g at one month, and 2700-3250 g at four months. Once the lactation period has concluded, the cubs are driven away by their mother,<ref name="soviet"/> though not as assertively as black-backed jackal mothers. Offspring from a previous litter may stay with their parents to help them rear their next litter, though their sexual behaviour is suppressed.<ref name="lapini1"/><ref name="estes2"/> Females become sexually mature at 11 months, while males become so after one year, though they only acquire an adult build after two years.<ref name="kingdon"/>
===Diet and hunting===
[[Image:Golden Jackal, navigating Wildebeest, Ngorongoro.jpg|thumb|right|A Serengeti jackal (''C. a. bea'') carefully navigating a herd of [[Blue Wildebeest]] in the [[Ngorongoro National Park]], [[Tanzania]]]]
Golden jackals are opportunistic feeders, being both predators and scavengers, and will readily eat refuse and vegetation during certain seasons. In the [[former Soviet Union]], jackals mainly hunt [[hare]]s, small rodents, [[pheasant]]s, [[partridge]]s, [[duck]]s, [[coot]]s, [[moorhen]]s and [[passerine]]s. They readily eat [[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s, [[frog]]s, [[insects]], [[fish]] and [[mollusc]]s. During the winter period, they will kill many [[nutria]]s and [[waterfowl]]. During such times, jackals will [[Surplus killing|surplus kill]] and cache what they do not eat. Jackals will feed on fruits such as [[pear]]s, [[Crataegus|hawthorn]], [[dogwood]] and the cones of [[Common Medlar]]s. In Spring, they will dig out bulbs and the roots of wild [[sugar cane]]. In Summer, jackals drink regularly, and stick to water bodies. During times of drought, jackals will dig holes in dried channels and drink the water collected in the ground, as well as eating dead fish and birds descending to drink. Near human habitations, jackals will feed near [[slaughterhouse]]s, [[landfill]]s and cattle burial places. In [[Dagestan]] in the 1920s, jackals frequently ate near railway lines, feeding on food remains thrown out of trains by passengers.<ref name="soviet"/> In Hungary, their most frequent prey are [[common vole]]s and [[bank vole]]s.<ref name="hungary">[http://www.vvt.gau.hu/kutatas/HM/taplalkozas_osszehasonlitas_LJHM.pdf ''Feeding habits of golden jackal and red fox in south-western Hungary during winter and spring'' By J. LANSZKi and M. Heltai]</ref> Information on the diet of jackals in North-Eastern Italy is scant, but it is certain that they prey on small [[roe deer]]s and hares.<ref name="lapini1"/> In the [[Serengeti]], golden jackals feed primarily on [[dung beetle]]s, [[grasshopper]]s and [[cricket]]s, though they will also eat [[gerbil]]s, [[springhare]]s, hares, ground birds and their eggs, lizards, snakes, frogs, fishes, bulbs, berries and fallen fruit. Although they readily follow alighting [[old world vulture|vultures]], scavenging only constitutes 3-6% of their diet, due to competition with [[spotted hyena]]s. They tend to only scavenge when an animal dies or when a larger predator makes a kill within their home range. When they come across unfamiliar meat, jackals have been observed to rub the sides of their necks on the food and roll on their backs. During the [[wildebeest]] calving season, golden jackals will feed almost exclusively on their [[afterbirth]].<ref name="kingdon"/> Although capable of killing animals 3 times their size, they usually only target sick or newborn animals. Otherwise, they will rarely attack healthy animals even of their own weight. Overall, African golden jackals do not target mammals as actively as black-backed jackals.<ref name="estes2"/> Jackals in [[Turkey]] have been known to eat the eggs of the [[endangered]] [[green turtle]].<ref>''Predation on green turtle Chelonia mydas nests by wild canids at Akyatan beach, Turkey'' by L. Brown and D. W. Macdonald, Biological Conservation, Volume 71, Issue 1, 1995, Pages 55-60</ref> In India, they consume much fruit and vegetable matter such as [[mango]]es, [[cashew]], [[fishtail palm]] and [[jackfruit]]s, as well as [[melon]]s, [[cucumber]]s and [[maize]].<ref name="kingdon"/> Pairs of jackals have been observed to hunt [[Capped Langur|capped langur]]s in north-western Bangladesh.<ref>''Predation on capped langurs (Presbytis pileata) by cooperatively hunting jackals (Canis aureus)'' by Dr. C. B. Stanford, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley</ref> Immature [[Northern Plains Gray Langur]]s are also rarely preyed upon.<ref>''Colobine monkeys: their ecology, behaviour, and evolution'' by A. Glyn Davies, John F. Oates, published by Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0-521-33153-6</ref>
Jackals rarely form small packs when hunting, though packs of 8-12 jackals consisting of more than one family have been observed in the summer periods of the Trans-Caucuses. When hunting singly, golden jackals will trot around an area occasionally stopping to sniff and listen. Once prey is located, lone jackals will conceal themselves, quickly approach then pounce. When hunting in pairs or packs, jackals run parallel and overtake their prey in unison. When hunting aquatic rodents or birds, they will run along both sides of narrow rivers or streams, driving their prey from one jackal to another.<ref name="kingdon"/><ref name="soviet"/> Success rates in hunting are greatly increased for jackals working in pairs: in East Africa, golden jackals hunting young [[Thompson's gazelle]]s alone have a success rate of 16%, while those working in pairs or more have one of 67%. When attacking medium sized animals, golden jackals will tear at the victim's abdomen, rarely killing it outright.<ref name="kingdon"/>
===Interspecific predatory relationships===
[[Image:Striped Hyena food fight.jpg|thumb|Golden jackals disputing with [[striped hyena]]s over an [[oryx]] carcass, as illustrated by Rev. J.G. Wood]]
Golden jackals tend to dominate smaller canid species. In Africa, golden jackals have been observed to kill the cubs of [[black-backed jackal]]s.<ref name="BBJ">{{cite web | title = Black-backed jackal | work = | publisher = Canids.org | url = http://www.canids.org/species/Black-backed_jackal.pdf | accessdate = 2007-09-13}}</ref> In [[Israel]], [[red fox]]es are a commonly occurring predator, and although smaller than jackals, their dietary habits are identical, and the two species are therefore in direct competition with one another. Foxes generally ignore jackal scents or tracks in their territories, though they will avoid close physical proximity with jackals themselves. Studies have shown that in areas where jackals became very abundant, the population size of foxes decreased significantly, apparently because of competitive exclusion.<ref name="RF">{{cite web | title = Behavioural responses of red foxes to an increase in the presence of golden jackals: a field experiment | work = | publisher = Department of Zoology, Tel Aviv University | url = http://www.tau.ac.il/lifesci/zoology/members/yom-tov/articles/Behavioural_responses_of_red_foxes.pdf | accessdate = 2007-07-31}}</ref> Conversely, jackals are shown to vacate areas inhabited by [[Gray Wolf|wolves]]. Wolves are often actively intolerant of jackals in their established territories and have been known to approach jackal-calling stations at a quick trotting pace, presumably to chase off the competitors.<ref name="GW">{{cite web | title = Conservation Action Plan for the golden jackal (''Canis aureus'') in Greece | work = | publisher = WWF Greece | url = http://www.lcie.org/Docs/Action%20Plans/Greece%20Golden%20Jackal%20Action%20Plan%202004.pdf | accessdate = 2007-07-31}}</ref> The jackal's recent expansion throughout eastern and western Europe has been attributed to historical declines in wolf populations. The present diffusion of the golden jackal in the Northern Adriatic Hinterland seems to be in rapid expansion <ref name="lapini2"/> in various areas where the wolf is absent or very rare (see also:<ref name="udine">{{it icon}}[http://www.altofriuli.com/ambiente/?id_evento=1266&layout=leggi_evento ''Scoperto in Val Tagliamento lo sciacallo dorato'' by Maria Clementi]</ref><ref name="slovenia">[http://web.bf.uni-lj.si/bi/NATURA-SLOVENIAE/pdf/NatSlo_10_1_5.pdf ''First record of a golden jackal (Canis aureus) in the Savinja Valley (Northern Slovenia)'' by Miha KROFEL and Hubert POTOČNIK of the Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Večna pot 111, SI-1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia]</ref>). In Africa, golden jackals often eat alongside [[African wild dog]]s, and will stand their ground if the dogs try to harass them.<ref name="estes2"/> In South-eastern Asia, golden jackals have been known to hunt alongside [[dhole]] packs,<ref name="thai">Lekagul, B. & McNeely, J. ''Mammals of Thailand'', Darnsutha Press; Second edition edition (January 1, 1988), ISBN 9748680614</ref> and there is one record of a golden jackal pack adopting a male [[Ethiopian wolf]].<ref>[http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/VHAYSSEN/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-485-01-0001.pdf ''Canis simensis'' by Claudio Sillero-Zubiri and Dada Gottelli. Published 2 December 1994 by The American Society of Mammologists]</ref>
In Africa, golden jackals tend to be warier toward [[lion]]s than black-backed jackals.<ref name="estes2"/> In India, lone jackals expelled from their pack have been known to form [[Commensalism|commensal relationship]]s with [[tiger]]s. These solitary jackals, known as ''kol-bahl'', will attach themselves to a particular tiger, trailing it at a safe distance in order to feed on the big cat's kills. A ''kol-bahl'' will even alert a tiger to a kill with a loud ''pheal''. Tigers have been known to tolerate these jackals: one report describes how a jackal confidently walked in and out between three tigers walking together a few feet away from each other.<ref name="perry">{{cite book | author = Perry, Richard | title = The World of the Tiger | year = 1965 | pages = 260 | id = ASIN: B0007DU2IU}}</ref> Tigers will however kill jackals on occasion: the now extinct tigers of the Amu-Darya region were known to frequently eat jackals.<ref name="USSR">Heptner, V. G. & Sludskii, A. A. 1992. [http://books.google.com/books?id=UxWZ-OmTqVoC&pg=PA177&dq=mammals+of+the+soviet+union+tigers+bears#v=onepage&q=jackals&f=false Mammals of the Soviet Union]. Vol. II, part 2, Carnivores(Feloidea), p. 177. Leiden, E. J. Brill. 784 pp. ISBN 90-04-08876-8</ref>
Jackals will feed alongside [[spotted hyena]]s, though they will be chased if they approach too closely. Spotted hyenas will sometimes follow jackals during the gazelle fawning season, as jackals are effective at tracking and catching young animals. Hyenas do not take to eating jackal flesh readily: four hyenas were reported to take half an hour in eating one. Overall, the two animals typically ignore each other when there is no food or young at stake.<ref name="Kruuk">''Interactions between Hyenas and other Carnivorous Animals'' from Hans Kruuk’s ''The Spotted Hyena: A Study of Predation and Social Behaviour'' The University of Chicago Press, Chicago 60637, 1972</ref> Jackals will confront a hyena approaching too closely to their dens by taking turns in biting the hyena's hocks until it retreats.<ref name="estes2"/> [[Striped hyena]]s have been known to prey on golden jackals in [[Kutch]], India; one striped hyena den contained three dead jackals.<ref name="GJ"/>
They are aggressive toward vultures on carcasses and will attack them if they land too close to them.<ref name="estes2"/>
===Vocalisations===
The vocabulary of golden jackals is similar to that of dogs and Seitz (1959) noted seven different sounds. He remarked that different subspecies can be recognised by differences in their howls. Among African canids, golden jackals have the most dog-like vocalisations.<ref name="kingdon"/> The cry of a golden jackal consists of a long wailing howl which is repeated three or four times, each repetition in a note a little higher than the preceding, and then a succession of usually three quick yelps, also repeated two or three times. It was commonly rendered in [[English language|English]] as ''"Dead Hindoo, where, where, where."''<ref name="canid"/> When in the vicinity of tigers or leopards, jackals will emit an alarm call often rendered as "''Pheal''."<ref name="canid"/><ref name="india"/> Groups will occasionally howl in chorus, which is thought to reinforce family bonds, as well as advertise territorial status.<ref name="estes2" /> Tamed jackals have been known to imitate the calls of their human captors.<ref name="rice" /> Jackals may howl for different reasons, such as to call other jackals or to seemingly announce changes in weather. They have been recorded to howl upon hearing church bells, sirens or the whistles of steam engines and boats. They typically howl at dawn, midday and the evening hours.<ref name="soviet"/>
==Range==
[[File:Jackalvarieties.jpg|thumb|Two geographical variants of golden jackal. Asian jackal (above), North African jackal (below)]]
In [[Africa]], golden jackals are widespread in the North and North-eastern portions of the continent, being present from [[Senegal]] on Africa's west coast to [[Egypt]] in the East. This range includes [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Libya]] in the north to [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]] and [[Tanzania]] in the south. Golden jackals also occur in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], and have a patchy distribution in [[Europe]]. In their European range, jackals are found in the [[Balkans]], [[Hungary]] and south-western [[Ukraine]]. They are found also in [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and north-eastern [[Italy]]<ref name="iucn"/><ref name="lapini1"/> (Friuli Venezia Giulia and Veneto), where their distribution has recently increased encompassing also the Region Trentino Alto Adige.<ref name="lapini2">Lapini L., Molinari P., Dorigo L., Are G. & Beraldo P., 2009. Reproduction of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus moreoticus I. Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, 1835) in Julian Pre-Alps, with new data on its range-expansion in the High-Adriatic Hinterland (Mammalia, Carnivora, Canidae). Boll. Mus. Civ. St. nat. Venezia, 60 (2009): 169-186.</ref>. To the east, their range includes [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], [[Central Asia]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], then east and south to [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]] and parts of [[Indochina]].<ref name="iucn"/>
==Habitat==
Golden jackals are typically lowland dwellers: in the Caucasus and Trans-Caucasus, they rarely ascend into mountains higher than 600 metres [[AMSL]], though jackals in [[Borzhomi]] have been found in heights of 900–1050 metres AMSL and 840 metres AMSL in [[Armenia]]. The presence of golden jackals and their choice of habitat is determined largely by food abundance, the presence of water and the presence of thick brush where they can conceal themselves from both their prey and enemies. They are especially abundant in areas where there is no prolongued freezing period for water bodies and where it is likely for waterfowl to overwinter. Although not maximally adapted for cold areas, golden jackals can withstand temperatures as low as -25° or even -35°. During times of heavy snowfall, jackals can only travel through paths made by humans or large animals.<ref name="soviet"/> Although the most desert adapted of jackals,<ref name="estes2"/> they avoid waterless deserts, being found there only on their very edges. On the coasts of the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s, their favoured habitats are impassable thickets of spiny bushes with tunnels created by larger animals such as [[wild boar]].<ref name="soviet"/> In North-eastern Africa, golden jackals avoid competition with other jackal species by inhabiting short grass plains, as opposed to the woodland areas favoured by side-striped jackals and the intermediate areas preferred by black-backed jackals.<ref name="estes2"/> In Italy the species breeds both near lowland towns (Udine surroundings) and in Pre-Alpine valleys (High River [[Natisone]]/[[Nadiza]] Valley in the Eastern Province of Udine), dwelling also in various localities of the Alpine Mountain Chain up to 1000 AMSL (San Vito di Cadore surroundings, Val Pusteria/Pustertal).<ref name="lapini2"/><ref name="lapini1"/> Sub-adult vagrants, however, have been recorded also in some urban areas of the Venetian floodplain, both in Venice (San Donà di Piave) and Treviso (Preganziol) Provinces.<ref name="lapini2"/> They hunt along the shores or canals of water bodies. In [[Middle Asia]] and [[Kazakhstan]] they prefer tugai thickets, thickets in abandoned irrigated lands and reed floodlands. In areas with little dense vegetation, such as the [[Gissar Valley|Gissar]] and [[Fergana Valley]]s, jackals reside in low hillocks, where they take refuge in dry channels, caves and abandoned fox dens.<ref name="soviet"/>
==Subspecies==
Though widespread, golden jackals do not display geographical variation to the same extent as wolves. Indian and North African jackals were once considered separate species, on account of differing coat colours, and the lengths of the ears being shorter in the Indian kind. However, unlike differing wolf subspecies, which display no great differences in the form of the skull or the proportions of the teeth, such differences are apparent in Asiatic and North African forms of golden jackal.<ref name=canid/> There are 13 subspecies of the golden jackal currently recognised, both on the basis of morphology and genetics:<ref name=MSW3/><ref name="lapini1"/>
{| class="wikitable sortable" width=100% font=90%
|- bgcolor="#115a6c"
!Subspecies
!Trinomial authority
!Description
!Range
!Synonyms
|----
|'''Algerian jackal'''<br/>''Canis a. algirensis''
[[File:Algerianjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Johann Andreas Wagner|Wagner]], 1841
|Darker than ''C. a. aureus'', with a tail marked with three dusky rings. Is equal in size to the [[red fox]]<ref name=smith/>
|[[Algeria]], [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]]
|<small>''barbarus'' (C. E. H. Smith, 1839)</small><br/>
<small>''grayi'' (Hilzheimer, 1906)</small><br/>
<small>''tripolitanus'' (Wagner, 1841)</small>
|----
|'''Senegalese jackal'''<br/>''[[Senegalese Jackal|Canis a. anthus]]''
[[File:Senegalthousdog.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Frédéric Cuvier|F. Cuvier]], 1820
| At least an inch higher at the shoulder, and several inches longer than ''C. a. lupaster'' with larger ears, a more dog-like head and a more gaunt build. The tail is shorter and not as hairy. The nose and forehead are greyish-buff, while the throat and under parts are white. It lacks the black ring round the neck, nor the stippled arrangement of black points on the back characteristic of ''C. a. lupaster''.<ref name="smith">[http://ia341305.us.archive.org/2/items/naturalhistoryof139smit/naturalhistoryof139smit.pdf ''The natural history of dogs : canidae or genus canis of authors ; including also the genera hyaena and proteles'' (1839) by Charles Hamilton Smith and Sir William Jardine, published by Edinburgh : W.H. Lizars]</ref>
|[[Senegal]]
|<small>''senegalensis'' (C. E. H. Smith, 1839)</small>
|----
|'''Common jackal'''<br/>''[[Common Jackal|Canis a. aureus]]''
[[File:Commonjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Linnaeus]], 1758
| The [[nominate subspecies]]. It is large with soft, pale fur with predominantly sandy tones<ref name=soviet/>
|Middle Asia, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Arabian Peninsula, Baluchistan, northwestern India<ref name=soviet/>
|<small>''balcanicus'' (Brusina, 1892)</small><br/>
<small>''caucasica'' (Kolenati, 1858)</small><br/>
<small>''dalmatinus'' (Wagner, 1841)</small><br/>
<small>''hadramauticus'' (Noack, 1896)</small><br/>
<small>''hungaricus'' (Ehik, 1938)</small><br/>
<small>''kola'' (Wroughton, 1916)</small><br/>
<small>''lanka'' (Wroughton, 1916)</small><br/>
<small>''maroccanus'' (Cabrera, 1921)</small><br/>
<small>''typicus'' (Kolenati, 1858)</small><br/>
<small>''vulgaris'' (Wagner, 1841)</small>
|----
|'''Serengeti jackal'''<br/>''Canis a. bea''
[[File:Golden Jackal, Serengeti.jpg|150 px]]
|Heller, 1914
|
|[[Kenya]], Northern [[Tanzania]]
|
|----
|'''Siamese jackal'''<br/>''Canis a. cruesemanni''
[[File:Siamjackals.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Paul Matschie|Matschie]], 1900
|Smaller than ''C. a. indicus''. Its status as a separate subspecies has been disputed by certain authors, who point out that its classification as such is based solely on observations on captive animals<ref name="thai"/>
|[[Thailand]], [[Myanmar]] to east India
|----
|''Canis a. ecsedensis''
|Kretzoi, 1947
|
|
|<small>''minor'' (Mojsisovico, 1897)</small>
|----
|'''Indian jackal'''<br/>''[[Indian Jackal|Canis a. indicus]]''
[[File:Indianjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]], 1833
|Its fur is a mixture of black and white, with buff on the shoulders, ears and legs. The buff colour is more pronounced in specimens from high altitudes. Black hairs predominate on the middle of the back and tail. The belly, chest and the sides of the legs are creamy white, while the face and lower flanks are grizzled with grey fur. Adults grow to a length of 100 cm (39 in), 35–45 cm (14–18 in) in height and 8–11 kg (18-24 lb) in weight.<ref name="nepal"/> Has been known to form [[Commensalism|commensal relationships]] with [[tiger]]s; trailing them in order to eat their kills, and alerting them to intruders or kills with loud cries.<ref name=perry/> The [[karyotype]] of the Indian jackal is quite different (2N=78; NF=84) from that of its Eurasian and African counterparts (2N=80).<ref name="lapini1"/>
|India, [[Nepal]]
|
|----
|'''Egyptian jackal'''<br/>''[[Egyptian Jackal|Canis a. lupaster]]''
[[File:Egyptianjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich and Ehrenberg]], 1833
|A large, wolf-like subspecies standing some 41 cm (16 in) in shoulder-height, with a total length of about 127 cm (50 in).<ref name=lydekker/> It seems to be larger than ''C. a. moreoticus''.<ref name=GW/> The skull is almost indistinguishable in size from that of the [[Indian Wolf]], though the teeth of ''C. a. lupaster'' are less heavily built.<ref name="lydekker2">[http://ia311027.us.archive.org/2/items/gameanimalsofind00lyde/gameanimalsofind00lyde.pdf ''The great and small game of India, Burma, and Tibet,'' (1907) by Richard Lydekker, published by London, R. Ward, limited]</ref> It is stoutly built, with proportionately short ears. The pelt is yellowish grey on the upper parts, and is mingled with black, which tends to collect in streaks and spots. The muzzle, the backs of the ears, and the outer surfaces of both pairs of limbs are reddish yellow, the margins of the mouth arc white, and the terminal half of the tail is darker than the back, with a black tip.<ref name="lydekker">[http://ia360634.us.archive.org/2/items/gameanimalsofafr00lyde/gameanimalsofafr00lyde.pdf ''The game animals of Africa'' (1908) by Richard Lydekker, published by London, R. Ward, limited]</ref>
|[[Egypt]]
|<small>''sacer'' (Hemprich and Ehrenberg, 1833)</small>
|----
|'''European jackal'''<br/>''[[European jackal|Canis a. moreoticus]]''
[[File:Turkishjackal.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|I. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], 1835
| One of the largest in the world, with animals of both sexes averaging 120–125 cm (47–49 in) in total length and 10-14,9 kg (20-33 lb) in body weight.<ref name="lapini1"/><ref name=GW/> The fur is coarse, and is generally brightly coloured with blackish tones on the back. The thighs, upper legs, ears and forehead are bright reddish chestnut<ref name=soviet/>
|South-eastern Europe, Asia Minor and Caucasus
|<small>''graecus'' (Wagner, 1841)</small>
|----
|'''Sri Lankan jackal'''<br/>''[[Sri Lankan Jackal|Canis a. naria]]''
|[[R. C. Wroughton|Wroughton]], 1916
| Measures 67–74 cm (26½-29 inches) and weighs 5-8.6 kg (12-19 lbs). The winter coat is shorter, smoother and not as shaggy than that of ''C. a. indicus''. The coat is also darker on the back, being black and speckled with white. The underside is more pigmented on the chin, hind throat, chest and forebelly, while the limbs are rusty ochreous or rich tan. Moulting occurs earlier in the season than with ''C. a. indicus'', and the pelt generally does not lighten in colour.<ref name="pocock">[http://ia341313.us.archive.org/0/items/PocockMammalia2/pocock2.pdf ''Fauna of British India: Mammals Volume 2'' by R. I. Pocock, printed by Taylor and Francis, 1941]</ref>
|Southern India, [[Sri Lanka]]
|<small>''lanka'' (Wroughton, 1838)</small>
|----
|''Canis a. riparius''
|[[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich and Ehrenberg]], 1832
| A dwarf subspecies measuring only a dozen inches in shoulder height. Generally of a greyish-yellow colour, mingled with only a small proportion of black. The muzzle and legs are more decidedly yellow, and the under-parts are white<ref name=lydekker/>
|Somaliland and coast of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]
|<small>''hagenbecki'' (Noack, 1897)</small><br/>
<small>''mengesi'' (Noack, 1897)</small><br/>
<small>''somalicus'' (Lorenz, 1906)</small>
|----
|'''Variegated jackal'''<br/>''[[Variegated jackal|Canis a. soudanicus]]''
[[File:Paintedthousdog.jpg|150 px]]
|[[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], 1903
|Smaller and more lightly built than ''C. a. lupaster'', standing 38 cm (15 in) at the shoulder, and 102 cm (40 in) in length. Compared with the wolf-like ''C. a. lupaster'', ''C. a. soudanicus'' is built more like a greyhound. The ears are somewhat larger than in ''C. a. lupaster'' and the body colour is generally pale stone-buff, with blotches of black<ref name=lydekker/>
|[[Sudan]] and [[Somaliland]]
|<small>''doederleini'' (Hilzheimer, 1906)</small><br/>
<small>''nubianus'' (Cabrera, 1921)</small><br/>
<small>''thooides'' (Hilzheimer, 1906)</small><br/>
<small>''variegatus'' (Cretzschmar, 1826)</small>
|----
|'''Syrian jackal'''<br/>''[[Syrian Jackal|Canis a. syriacus]]''
[[File:Canis aureus revivim2.JPG|150 px]]
|[[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich and Ehrenberg]], 1833
|It weighs 5–12 kg (11–27 lb), and has a body length of 60–90 cm (24–35 in).<ref name="holy"/> Distinguished by its brown ears. Each hair of the back consists of four distinct colours; white at the root, then black, above which foxy-red, and the point black<ref name=smith/>
|[[Israel]], western [[Jordan]]
|
|----
|}
==Diseases and parasites==
[[File:Jackal head 2.JPG|thumb|The head of a golden jackal before being preserved and examined for [[rabies]] infection in the brain]]
Golden jackals can carry diseases and parasites harmful to human health; among them [[rabies]] and [[Leishmania donovani|Donovan's leishmania]] (which although harmless to jackals, can cause [[leishmaniasis]] in people). Jackals in southwestern Tajikistan have been recorded to carry 16 species of [[cestode]]s, [[roundworm]]s and [[acanthocephala]]ns (''[[Sparganosis|Sparganum mansoni]]'', ''[[Diphyllobothrium mansonoides]]'', ''Taenia hydatigena'', ''[[Taenia pisiformis|T. pisiformis]]'', ''T. ovis'', ''Hydatigera taeniaeformis'', ''Diphylidium caninum'', ''mesocestoides lineatus'', ''[[Ancylostoma caninum]]'', ''[[Uncinaria stenocephala]]'', ''[[Dioctophyma renale]]'', ''[[Toxocara canis]]'', ''[[Toxascaris leonina]]'', ''[[Dracunculus medinensis]]'', ''Filariata'' and ''Macracanthorhynchus catulinum''). Jackals infected with ''D. medinensis'' can infect water bodies with their eggs, and cause [[dracunculiasis]] in people who drink from them. Jackals may also play a large part in spreading coenurosis in sheep and cattle, and [[canine distemper]] in dogs.<ref name=soviet/> Jackals in the Serengeti are known to carry the [[canine parvovirus]], [[canine herpesvirus]], [[canine coronavirus]] and [[canine adenovirus]].<ref name=GJ/> In July 2006, a Romanian jackal was found to be carrying ''[[Trichinella britovi]]''.<ref>[http://www.jwildlifedis.org/cgi/reprint/44/2/457.pdf ''First Identification of Trichinella sp. in Golden Jackal (Canis aureus) in Romania'' by R. Blaga, C. Gherman, D. Seucom, V. Cozma, and P. Boireau. Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 44(2), 2008, pp. 457–459 © Wildlife Disease Association 2008]</ref> Jackals consuming fish and molluscs can be infected with [[metagonimiasis]], which was recently diagnosed in a male jackal from North-Eastern Italy.<ref name="lapini2"/> In Tajikistan, at least twelve [[tick]] species are known to be carried by golden jackals (which include ''[[Ixodes]]'', ''Rhipicephalus turanicus'', ''R. leporis'', ''R. rossicus'', ''[[Rhipicephalus sanguineus|R. sanguineus]]'', ''R. pumilio'', ''R. schulzei'', ''[[Hyalomma]] anatolicum'', ''H. scupense'' and ''H. asiaticum''), four [[flea]] species (''[[Pulex irritans]]'', ''Xenopsylla nesokiae'', ''[[Dog flea|Ctenocephalides canis]]'' and ''[[Ctenocephalides felis|C. felis]]'') and one species of [[louse]] (''Trichodectes canis'').<ref name=soviet/> In North-Eastern Italy the species is a carrier of the tick species ''[[Ixodes ricinus]]'' and ''[[Dermacentor reticulatus]]''.<ref name="lapini2"/>
==Relationships with humans==
===Role in mythology and literature===
[[File:Tutanhkamun jackal.jpg|thumb|left|Life sized [[Anubis]] statue from the [[Tomb of Tutankhamun]] ([[Cairo Museum]])]]
[[Image:T2JB005 - Good luck go with you, O chief of the wolves.JPG|thumb|[[Tabaqui]] ('''left''') torments [[Father Wolf]] and his family, as illustrated in page 5 of the 1895 edition of ''The Two [[Jungle Book]]s'' by [[Rudyard Kipling]]]]
The [[Ancient Egypt]]ian god of embalming, [[Anubis]], was portrayed as a jackal-headed man, or as a jackal wearing ribbons and holding a flagellum. Anubis was always shown as a jackal or dog coloured black, the color of regeneration, death, and the night. It was also the color that the body turned during [[mummification]]. The reason for Anubis' animal model being canine is based on what the ancient Egyptians themselves observed of the creature - dogs and jackals often haunted the edges of the desert, especially near the cemeteries where the dead were buried. In fact, it is thought that the Egyptians began the practice of making elaborate graves and tombs to protect the dead from desecration by jackals. [[Duamutef]], one of the [[Four Sons of Horus]] and a protection god of the [[Canopic jar]]s, was also portrayed as having jackal-like features.
The [[Authorized King James Version]] of the [[Bible]] never mentions jackals, though this could be due to a translation error. The AVs of [[Book of Isaiah|Isiah]], [[Book of Micah|Micah]], [[Book of Job|Job]] and [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] mentions "wild beasts" and "dragons" crying in desolate houses and palaces. The original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words used are ''lyim'' (howler) and ''tan'' respectively. According to biologist Michael Bright, ''tan'' is more likely referring to jackals than dragons, as the word is frequently used throughout the AV to describe a howling animal asosciated with desolation and abandoned habitations, which is consistent with the golden jackal's vast vocal repertoire and its occasional habit of living in abandoned buildings. Jeremiah makes frequent references to jackals by using the word ''shu'al'', which can mean both jackal and fox. Although the AV translates the word as fox, the behaviour described is more consistent with jackals, as shown in the books of [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] and [[Book of Psalms|Psalms]] in which references are made to the ''shu'al's'' habit of eating corpses in battlefields.<ref name="BOTF">{{cite book|author=Bright, Michael|title=Beasts of the Field: The Revealing Natural History of Animals in the Bible|year=2006|page= 346|isbn=1861058314|publisher=Robson|___location= London}}</ref> [[David W. Macdonald]] theorizes that due to the general scarcity and elusiveness of foxes in Israel, the author of the [[Book of Judges]] may have actually been describing the much more common golden jackals when narrating how [[Samson]] tied torches to the tails of 300 foxes to make them destroy the vineyards of the [[Philistines]].<ref name="RWTF">{{cite book | author=Macdonald, David | title=Running with the Fox | year=1987 | pages= p224 | isbn=0-044-40199-X | publisher=Unwin Hyman | ___location= }}</ref> According to an ancient Ethiopian folktale, jackals and man first became enemies shortly before the [[Deluge myth|Great Flood]], when [[Noah]] initially refused to allow jackals into the [[Noah's Ark|ark]], thinking jackals were unworthy of being saved until being commanded by God to do so.<ref>{{it icon}}Motta, F. (editore), ''Nel Mondo della Natura: Enciclopedia Motta di Scienze Naturali, Zoologia'', Quinto Volume, 1957</ref>
Golden jackals appear prominently in [[Folklore of India|Indian folklore]], where they are often portrayed in the context of trickery and deceit. The story of [[The Blue Jackal]] has the jackal disguising itself with blue paint as ''Neelaakanth'', the guardian of all animals, and tricking the other animals into providing food for him, so that he may continue protecting them. He is driven away once the monsoon washes the paint from him.<ref name="panchatantra.org">[http://panchatantra.org/the-story-of-the-blue-jackal.html Panchatantra The Story of The Blue Jackal<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.bolokids.com/2006/0049.htm The Blue Jackal : A Panchtantra Story by Swapna Dutta<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.indiaoz.com.au/hinduism/kids_corner/panchatantra/panchatantra4.shtml A - Z Hinduism - Panchatantra Stories<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s [[Mowgli]] stories collected in ''[[The Jungle Book]]'', the character [[Tabaqui]] is a jackal despised by the Sioni wolf pack, due to his mock cordiality, scavenging habits and his subservience to [[Shere Khan]]. He appears in the beginning of the book, visiting Mowgli's adoptive parents, [[Raksha (Jungle Books)|Mother]] and [[Father Wolf]], and they are clearly annoyed by his presence, since he announces that Shere Khan the tiger is hunting in their territory. Tabaqui is later killed by one of Mowgli's 'siblings', [[Grey Brother]], who crushes his back.
Talking golden jackals appear in [[Franz Kafka]]'s ''[[Jackals and Arabs]]'', in which they try to convince a European traveller to end the feud between them and the [[Arab people]].
Although present in Europe, jackals are rarely featured in European folklore or literature. Surveys taken in the High Adriatic Hinterland indicate that the totality of people with first hand experience of jackals (hunters, game keepers and local people) regularly mistook red foxes affected by sarcoptic mange (or in a problematic state of moult) for golden jackals. The sighting of a true golden jackal however, was always referred to as a wolf, or a little wolf. This was verified both with photo-trapping sessions and with a study on tracks, confirming previous observations on this matter. This erroneous and controversial perception of the golden jackal may be due to the fact that its presence is still not traditional, neither in Italian and Slovenian human culture, nor in hunting and game keeping traditions.<ref name="lapini2"/>
===Livestock, game and crop predation===
Golden jackals can be harmful pests, and will attack domestic animals, including [[turkeys]], lambs, [[sheep]], [[goat]]s and there is one record of a jackal attacking a newborn [[domestic water buffalo]] calf. They destroy many [[grape]]s, eating [[watermelon]]s, [[muskmelon]]s and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]].<ref name="soviet"/> In Greece, jackals tend not to be as damaging to livestock as wolves and red foxes are, though they can become a serious niusance to small sized stock when in high numbers.<ref name="GW"/> In southern Bulgaria, 1,053 attacks on small stock, mainly sheep and lambs, were recorded between 1982–87, along with some damages to newborn deer in game farms.<ref name="GW" /> In Israel, about 1.5%–1.9% of the calves born in the Golan Heights die due to predation, mainly by Golden Jackals. In both cases, the high predation rate is thought to be the consequence of a jackal population explosion due to the availability of food in illegal garbage dumps.<ref name="GJP">{{cite web | title = Cattle Predation by the Golden Jackal Canis in the Golan Heights, Israel | work = | publisher = Department of zoology, Tel Aviv university | url = http://www.tau.ac.il/lifesci/zoology/members/yom-tov/articles/Cattle.pdf | accessdate = 2007-08-19}}</ref> Preventative measures to avoid depredation were also lacking in both cases. However, even without preventing measures, the highest damages by jackals from Bulgaria are minimal when compared to the domestic animal losses by wolves.<ref name="GW" /> Golden jackals are extremely harmful to furbearing rodents such as [[nutria]]s and [[muskrat]]s. Nutrias can be completely extirpated in shallow water bodies, and during the winter of 1948-49 in the [[Amu Darya]], muskrats constituted 12.3% of jackal faeces contents, and 71% of muskrat houses were destroyed by jackals, 16% of which froze and became unsuitable for muskrat occupation. Jackals also harm the muskrat industry by eating muskrats caught in traps or taking skins left out to dry.<ref name="soviet"/>
===Hunting===
{{Main|Jackal coursing}}
[[File:Jackalhunt.jpg|thumb|left|''Hunting Jackals'' by [[Samuel Howitt]], illustrating a group of jackals rushing to the defence of a fallen pack-mate]]
[[File:Canis aureus fur skin.jpg|thumb|Golden jackal pelt]]
During the [[British Raj]], British sportsmen in India would hunt jackals on horseback with hounds as a substitute for the [[fox hunting]] of their native England. Unlike foxes, golden jackals were documented to be ferociously protective of their pack mates, and could seriously injure dogs.<ref>''An Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports: Or a Complete Account, Historical, Practical, and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, and Other Field Sports and Athletic Amusements of the Present Day, Delabere Pritchett Blaine'' by Delabere Pritchett Blaine, published by Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1840</ref>
{{quote|According to Dr. Jerdon, the Jackal is easily pulled down by greyhounds, but gives an excellent run with foxhounds. He adds that they are very tenacious of life, and "sham dead" so well as to deceive even experienced sportsmen. On one occasion a Jackal came to the aid of another individual possibly its mate which had been seized by greyhounds, attacking them furiously although Dr. Jerdon was close by on horseback.
|''A monograph of the canidae'' by St. George Mivart, F.R.S, published by Alere Flammam. 1890}}
Jackals were not hunted often in this manner, as they were slower than foxes and could scarcely outrun greyhounds after 200 yards.<ref>''The Sports Library Riding, Driving and Kindred Sports'' by T. F. Dale, published by BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2009, ISBN 1-110-58955-7</ref>
In the former Soviet Union, jackals are not actively hunted, and are usually captured incidentally during the hunting of other animals by means of traps or shooting during drives. In the Trans-Caucases, jackals are captured with large fishing hooks baited with meat, suspended 75–100 cm from the ground with wire. The jackals can only reach the meat by jumping, and are hooked by the lip or jaw.<ref name="soviet" />
The Greek Ministry of Agriculture annually organised shooting and poisoning campaigns against jackals up until 1981. An average of 1000 jackals were killed per year in these campaigns, and a bounty was paid for each animal killed. The jackal was the first wild canid to be removed from Greece's vermin list in 1990 and was followed by the wolf and fox in 1993, though unlike the latter two species, jackals did not fully recolonise areas of their former range. Although jackals in Greece are rarely hunted intentionally, they are occasionally shot during the hunts of other animals such as wild boar.<ref name="GW" />
In Italy the species has been recently protected by the National Law 157/1992, but it is occasionally shot illegally during [[fox hunting]]. This seems to be the main obstacle for the species in Italy.<ref name="lapini2"/>
Jackals are hunted in Vietnam for their noses, which are supposed to possess medicinal qualities.<ref>''Vietnam: a natural history'' by Eleanor J. Sterling, Martha Maud Hurley, Minh Duc Le, published by Yale University Press, 2006, ISBN 0-300-10608-4</ref>
===Fur use===
In [[Russia]] and other nations of the [[former Soviet Union]], golden jackals are considered furbearers, albeit ones of low quality due to their sparse, coarse and monotonously coloured fur.<ref name="soviet" /> Asiatic and Near Eastern jackals produce the coarsest pelts, though this can be remedied during the dressing process. As jackal hairs have very little fur fibre, their skins have a flat appearance. The softest furs come from [[Elburz]] in northern Iran.<ref name="fur">Bachrach, M., ''Fur: a practical treatise'', 3rd edition., New York : Prentice-Hall, 1953</ref> Jackals are known to have been hunted for their fur in the 19th century: in the 1880s, 200 jackals were captured annually in Mervsk. In the Zakatal area of the Trans-Caucases, 300 jackals were captured in 1896. During that period, a total of 10,000 jackals had been taken within Russia, and were sent exclusively to the Nizhegorod fair. In the early 1930s, 20-25 thousand jackal skins were tanned annually in the [[Soviet Union]], though the stocks were significantly underused, as over triple that amount could have been produced. Before 1949 and the onset of the [[Cold War]], the majority of jackal skins were exported to the [[USA]]. Despite their geographical variations, jackal skins are not graded according to a fur standard, and are typically used in the manufacture of cheap collars, women's coats and fur coats.<ref name="soviet" /> Jackal fur is still valued by the [[Kazakh people]] along the Caspian shoreline, as it is lighter and warmer than [[sheepskin]].<ref>[http://www.caspianenvironment.org/biodiversity2.htm Animals of the Caspian Sea]</ref>
===Tameability===
Golden jackals are easily tamed, and if taken when young, can be taught to follow and obey their captors like dogs. When captured as adults, they are much less tractable, being shy, suspicious and prone to bite without warning. Tame jackals are noted to gradually lose their distinct odour in proportion to the length of their captivity.<ref>''The illustrated natural history'' by John George Wood, published by G. Routledge and sons, 1865</ref> [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote of how he encountered several tame jackals in India, describing one which would come when called by its name, and was fastidiously clean. Rather than sit on its haunches as a dog would, it would lie at full length with its nose between its forepaws.<ref>''Roosevelt in Africa'' by Frederick Seymour, Kessinger Publishing, 2004, ISBN 1-4179-4207-X</ref>
==Relationship to the dog==
===Hyrbidisation===
{{Main|Canid hybrid|Jackal-Dog Hybrid}}
[[File:Sulimov dog.jpg|thumb|A [[Sulimov Dog]] at work]]
Golden jackals are capable of reproducing with [[dog]]s. In his ''[[The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication]]'', [[Charles Darwin]] wrote of a female hybrid from an English dog and jackal kept in the Zoological Gardens of London. The hybrid was sterile, but Darwin pointed out that this was an exceptional case, as there were numerous cases of jackal hybrids successfully reproducing.<ref name="darwin">{{Cite book |last= Darwin |first= Charles | author-link =Charles Darwin| year=1868 | title=The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. Volume 1 | edition=1st | publication-place = London | publisher=John Murray | url =http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Freeman_VariationunderDomestication.html | pages=32–33 }}</ref> [[Robert Armitage Sterndale]] mentioned experimental jackal hybrids from [[British India]] in his ''Natural History of Mammals in India and Ceylon'', noting that glaring jackal traits could be exhibited in hybrids even after three generations of crossing them with dogs.<ref name="india">[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/19550/19550-h/19550-h.htm#245 ''NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAMMALIA OF INDIA AND CEYLON'' by Robert A. Sterndale, THACKER, SPINK, AND CO. BOMBAY: THACKER AND CO., LIMITED. LONDON: W. THACKER AND CO. 1884.]</ref>
Scientists at Russia's DS Likhachev Scientific Research Institute for Cultural Heritage and Environmental Protection began a breeding project in 1975 in which they crossed golden jackals with huskies, in order to create an improved breed with the jackal's power of scent and the husky's resistance to cold. In recent years, [[Aeroflot]] has used quarter jackal hybrids, known as [[Sulimov Dog]]s, to sniff out explosives otherwise undetectable by machinery.<ref name="sulimov1">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1977094.stm Jackal blood makes 'perfect' sniffer dogs]</ref><ref name="sulimov2">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2572499.stm Russian airline's top dogs fight terror]</ref> Breeding experiments in [[Germany]] with [[poodle]]s, jackals, and later on with the resulting dog-jackal hybrids showed that unlike [[wolfdog]]s, jackal-dogs show a decrease in fertility, significant communication problems as well as an increase of genetic diseases after three generations of interbreeding. This lead to the conclusion that dogs and jackals were not as closely related as once thought.<ref>Doris Feddersen-Petersen, Hundepsychologie, 4. Auflage, 2004, Franck-Kosmos-Verlag 2004</ref>
===Alleged ancestor===
[[File:Domesticjackal.jpg|thumb|Illustration of domesticated jackals in a prehistoric human community]]
Following the example of [[Charles Darwin]], who speculated that [[dog]]s originated from multiple wild canid species, [[Konrad Lorenz]] advocated the view that most dogs, particularly central European breeds, originated from golden jackals, and that wolf blood only contributed in the creation of northern dog breeds. Lorenz theorised that wolf blood was added to an already existing jackal derived population only when humans began colonising Arctic zones in order to improve the hardiness of their animals in cold weather. He further pointed out that with the exception of northern dog breeds, which treat their human masters as pack leaders as wolves would do, the majority of dogs view their captors as parent animals, and display a submissive behaviour not usually found in northern breeds, a trait consistent with the golden jackal which does not rely heavily on pack members to procure food and survive. While capable of absolute obedience, the supposed jackal derived dogs are lacking in the deeper traits of loyalty and affection.<ref name="lorenz">''Man meets dog'' by Konrad Lorenz, Marjorie Kerr Wilson, translated by Marjorie Kerr Wilson, Edition 2, illustrated, published by Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-26744-7</ref> He later rescinded this view upon taking into account the golden jackal's complicated repertoire of howling, which is absent in dogs and wolves.<ref>''The wild canids: Their systematics, behavioral ecology, and evolution'' by Michael W. Fox. Published in 1975, Van Nostrand Reinhold (New York)</ref>
Although the general consensus among modern scientists is that dogs originated from Asian wolves, there are still those who advocate the possibility of a partial jackal contribution. Dog specialist Dr Ian Dunbar pointed out how jackals have often been recorded to mate with pariah and dingo-like dogs and produce offspring, thus the possibility of jackals having influenced some breeds is a possibility. Author Michael Rice further argues that the golden jackal may have played a large part in the creation of Ancient Egyptian hunting hounds, pointing out how [[Pharaoh hound]]s do indeed have vocalisations similar to golden jackals, including the latter species' ability to almost mimic the calls of their human masters. Among other similarities, Pharaoh hounds tend to give ritual "noddings and groanings" to people they encounter for the first time, and tend to be monogamous, and only choose to mate with members of the same breed.<ref name="rice">''Swifter than the arrow: the golden hunting hounds of ancient Egypt'' by Michael Rice, published by I.B.Tauris, 2006, ISBN 1-84511-116-8</ref>
==References==
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== Bibliografia ==
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