Second Constitutional Era: Difference between revisions

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== Revolt==

{{Main|Young Turk Revolution}}

[[Image:Constantinople settings and traits (1926)- public demonstration.png|thumb|200px|Public demonstration in the Sultanahmet district of Istanbul, 1908]]

On [[3 July]] [[1908]], athe [[Young Turk Revolution]] began that quickly spread throughout the empire and resulted in the sultan announcing the restoration of the 1876 constitution and reconvening parliament. The reason behind the revolt was the sultan’s policies which controlled the system under his heavy arm and also European interventions which endangering the Empires existence. The officers who had instigated the revolution, like their civilian supporters, were primarily concerned with the Ottoman Empire. It is also claimed that they were also concerned personal matters such as salary and rank, same as Janniseries. The military reform's produced a new type of officer, of lower social origin. The current Pashas, opposing to traditional Pashas from Place School, did not acquire the extensive education covering many administrative fields, besides their military training. The officers had not thought much beyond their demand for the restoration of constitution.

== First Elections (1908)==

[[Image:Constantinople settings and traits (1926)- Ottoman parlementers.png|thumb|200px|Parliamentarians after a session]]

The Committee of Union and Progress managed to defeat SabaheddinSabahaddin's group in the elections held in 1908. In power, the Young Turks introduced a number of new initiatives intended to promote the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. They promoted industrialization and administrative reforms, and their reforms of provincial administration quickly led to a higher degree of centralization. This group advocated a program of orderly reform under a strong central government, as well as the exclusion of all foreign influence. It worked together with a similar reform group—the League of Private Initiative and Decentralization, under one Prince Sabaheddin—whose goals were somewhat different: Sabaheddin's group favored administrative decentralization and European assistance to implement reforms and also promoted industrialization.

In addition, they implemented the secularization of the legal system and subsidies for the education of women, and altered the administrative structure of the state-operated primary schools. Their domestic reforms were in some ways quite successful, but their foreign policy proved to be disastrous.

Young Turks sought to modernize the Empire's communications and transportation networks, (whichtrying stillat reliedthe onsame cameltime caravans),not withoutto puttingput themselves in the hands of European conglomerates and non-Muslim bankers. Europeans already owned the paltry railroad system (5,991 km of single-track railroads in the whole of the Ottoman dominions in [[1914]]) and since [[1881]] administration of the defaulted Ottoman foreign debt had been in European hands. The Ottomon Empire was virtually an economic colony.

==31 March Incident==

{{Main|31 March Incident}}

After nine months of the new parliament, the new system was not found to be satisfactory and an increase in discontent found expression in the counter-revolutionary ‘Thirty-First of March Incident’. Many aspects of this revolt, which started within certain sections of the mutinying army in Istanbul, have still not been carefully analyzed. The traditional perception that it was a ‘reactionary’ movement has sometimes been challangedchallenged, given the results and effects on the young political system.

==Second Elections (1912)==

TheBy 1912, the Committee of Union and Progress had been in power for four years. AtTowards the end of 1911, there was athe strongopposition movementgathered opposingaround it–the newlyre-organized Liberty and Entente (tr:Hürriyet ve İtilâf) Party seemed on the rise. A by-election in December 1911 (actually covering a single constituency) in which the Liberty and Entente candidate won was taken as a by-electionconfirmation inof İstanbula innew Decemberpolitical 1911atmosphere and its repercussions were extensive.

The CUP wantedthen sought national elections before the things wentslipped out of the party's control, as they perceived. In the two-party general elections held in the spring of 1912, the CUP still had athe victoryupper hand in the Parliament. ItBut waswith questionablethe butBalkan deemedcountries legitimatepreparing to launch a war against the Ottoman Empire, and many deputies owing allegiance to those countries, the Parliament that opened proved unworkable. TheOn [[5 August]] [[1912]], electionsdue broughtto the parliamentarysituation systemof toemergency acreated by the First Balkan War, the Parliament was stopclosed.

In 1912 the majority of the empire was composed of Turks and Arab (Muslim) millets. Given the new structure, representatives from Arab provinces increased from 23% (1908) to 27%, Turkomans 14% (1908) to 22% and in total CUP members from 39% (1908) to 67%. Interestingly, in this new consolidated structure minority issues, such as those affecting the Armenians, dominated mainstream politics. [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation|Armenian]] politicians were supporting the CUP, but when the parliament was formed the result was very different from the expected one. The Balkan wars had significantly shifted from a multiethnic and multireligious Ottoman Empire to a Muslim core. The size of the CUP's majority in parliament proved to be a source of weakness rather than strength as minorities became outsiders. The deported Muslims (Turks) from the Balkans were located in the western parts of Anatolia and they brought their own issues. Armenians were expecting more representation through the parliament, but the nature of democracy kept them in a minority position. That was an unexpected result for the Armemians after they had been in a very protected position since 1453.

In 1913, politics in Istanbul was centred around trying to find a solution to the demands of Arab and [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation|Armenian]] reformist groups. 19th century politics of Ottoman Empire dealt with the decentralist demands of the Balkan nations. In 1913, the same pattern was originating from the eastern provinces. With most of the Christian population having already left the Empire after the [[Balkan Wars]], a redefinition of Ottoman politics was in place with a greater emphasis on Islam as a binding force. The choice of this policy should also be considered as external forces ([[imperialist]]s) were Christians. It was a policy of "them against us". In 1913, the CUP was trying to govern through populist politics. To gain more legitimacy among the population the CUP propagated an Islamic propaganda effort with anti-imperialist rhetoric. All around the Empire [[Committee of Union and Progress|CUP]] clubs were springing up. The [[Committee of Union and Progress|CUP]] was challenging traditional forces; this proved to be the source of its destruction.

==Coup of 1913 and the Single-Party Regime==

{{Main|Coup of 1913}}

On [[23 January]] [[1913]], [[Enver Pasha]], one of the Young Turk leaders, burst with some of his associates into the [[Sublime Porte]] while the Cabinet was actually in session, shot the Minister of War Nazım Pasha dead at the Council table and literally overturned by force Mehmed Kamil Pasha's [Prime] Ministry. The primary reason for the coup had been the disastrous fortunes of the Ottoman Empire during the [[Balkan Wars]]. A new CUP-led government was formed, headed by [[Mahmud Shevket Pasha]]. who in his turn was assassinated on [[11 June]] [[1913]], and was succeeded by [[Said Halim Pasha]]. New elections in a single-party framework were held in 1914 and the CUP gained all constituencies. The effective power lay in the hands of [[Mehmed Talat Pasha]], the Interior Minister, [[Enver Pasha]], the Minister of War, and [[Cemal Pasha]], the Minister of the Navy, till [[1918]].

January 23, as a result of a successful coup d'état, Kiamil Pasha was driven from power and Nazim Pasha (grand vizir) replaced by Enver Bey if not by position, by placing himself at the head of a new government. It was recognized in London that further negotiations were useless. This way London Peace Conference had failed.

==World War I and the end of the CUP==

RebuffedThrough elsewherehighly bysecret thediplomatic major European powersnegotiations, thea Youngfraction Turks,within throughthe highly secret diplomatic negotiations,CUP led the Ottoman Empire to ally herself with Berlin[[Germany]] during the [[World War I]]. The Empire's role as an ally of the [[Central Powers]] is part of the history of that war. With the collapse of [[Bulgaria]] and Germany's capitulation, the Ottoman Empire was isolated.

On [[October 13]], [[1918]], Talat and the CUP ministry resigned, and anthe [[armisticeArmistice of Mudros]] was signed aboard a British battleship in the [[Aegean Sea]] at the end of the month. On [[November 2]], Enver, Talat and Cemal, with their German allies, escaped from [[Constantinopleİstanbul]] into exile.

==Last term of the Ottoman Parliament==

In [[1913]], as the government was losing the [[Second Balkan War]], the CUP seized power. The CUP-led government was headed by the minister of the interior/Grand Vizier, [[Mehmed Talat Pasha]] ([[1874]]–[[1921]]). Working with him were the minister of war [[Ismail Enver]], ([[1881]]–[[1922]]) and the minister of the navy [[Ahmed Djemal]], ([[1872]]–[[1922]]). Until German archives were opened, historians treated the CUP government as a dictatorial triumvirate; now it appears that the party was riven by internal dissent and loosely guided by a large directorate of the party's central committee.

The last elections for the Ottoman Parliament were held in December 1919. The newly elected members of the Ottoman Parliament, composed in their sweeping majority of candidates of "Association for Defense of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia (''Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti'')", headed by [[Mustafa Kemal Pasha]], who himself remained in [[Ankara]], opened the fourth (and last) term of the Parliament on [[12 January]] [[1920]]. Despite being short-lived and the exceptional conditions, this last assembly took a number of important decisions.

But with the occupation of İstanbul by the Allied forces on [[March 16]], who arrested, in the same day or in the following days, a number of deputies to send them to exile in [[Malta]], the parliament's activities came to a halt. Its last session was held on March 18, with a number of deputies missing, a black pulpit covering the pulpit instead in a gesture of protest to remind of their forced absence. Many of the remaining members soon leave for Ankara to constitute the core of the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly|new assembly]]. On [[April 5]], the sultan [[Mehmed VI]] Vahdeddin, under the pressure of the Allies, closed the Ottoman Parliament officially.

==WWI==

Rebuffed elsewhere by the major European powers, the Young Turks, through highly secret diplomatic negotiations, led the Ottoman Empire to ally herself with Berlin during [[World War I]]. The Empire's role as an ally of the [[Central Powers]] is part of the history of that war. With the collapse of [[Bulgaria]] and Germany's capitulation, the Ottoman Empire was isolated.

==EndSources==

* [http://www.tusiad.org/yayin/gorus/39/11tarih.pdf#search=%22%22son%20osmanl%C4%B1%20se%C3%A7imleri%22%22 Short history of election under the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Turkey Turkish Industrialists and Businessmen's Association - in Turkish]

On [[October 13]], [[1918]], Talat and the CUP ministry resigned, and an [[armistice]] was signed aboard a British battleship in the [[Aegean Sea]] at the end of the month. On [[November 2]], Enver, Talat and Cemal, with their German allies, escaped from [[Constantinople]] into exile.

{{History of Turkey}}