Canada changed from FTI to FTF in 1989. One study found that thecontrary to expectations "the switch failed to stimulate Canadian R&D efforts. Nor did it have any effects on overall patenting. However, the reforms had a small adverse effect on domestic-oriented industries and skewed the ownership structure of patented inventions towards large corporations, away from independent inventors and small businesses." <ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1394833#%23 Lo and Sutthiphisal: "Does it Matter Who Has the Right to Patent: First-to-Invent or First-to-File? Lessons from Canada," April 2009, NBER Working Paper No. w14926]</ref>
== The USA's change to first-inventor-to-file (FITF) ==
