Utente:BlackPanther2013/Sandbox/1.0: differenze tra le versioni

Versione delle 01:19, 27 mar 2017

Versione delle 16:05, 2 apr 2017

Riga 1:

{{Ecoregione

{{Tassobox

|nome = Foreste sempreverdi dei monti Daba

|nome=Nilgau

|nomeoriginale = Daba Mountains evergreen forests

|statocons=LC

|immagine = VM_5082_Xiqiuwan_xiang_Baishawan_cun_fields.jpg

|statocons_versione=iucn3.1

|didascalia =

|statocons_ref=<ref name=IUCN>{{IUCN|summ=2893|autore=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group 2016}}</ref>

|ecozona = paleartica

|immagine=[[File:Nilgauantilope_Boselaphus_tragocamelus_Tierpark_Hellabrunn-10.jpg|230px]]

|bioma = 04

|didascalia=

|codice_WWF = PA0417

<!-- CLASSIFICAZIONE: -->

|superficie = 168300

|dominio=[[Eukaryota]]

|conservazione = 4

|regno=[[Animalia]]

|stati = {{CHN}}

|sottoregno=

|mappa =

|superphylum=

|descrizione_mappa =

|phylum=[[Chordata]]

|sito = http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0417

|subphylum=

|infraphylum=

|microphylum=

|nanophylum=

|superclasse=

|classe=[[Mammalia]]

|sottoclasse=

|infraclasse=

|superordine=

|ordine=[[Artiodactyla]]

|sottordine=

|infraordine=

|superfamiglia=

|famiglia=[[Bovidae]]

|sottofamiglia=[[Bovinae]]

|tribù=

|sottotribù=

|genere='''Boselaphus'''

|genereautore=<small>[[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville|de Blainville]], [[1816]]</small>

|sottogenere=

|specie='''B. tragocamelus'''

|sottospecie=

<!-- NOMENCLATURA BINOMIALE: -->

|biautore=([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]]

|binome=Boselaphus tragocamelus

|bidata=[[1766]])

<!-- NOMENCLATURA TRINOMIALE: -->

|triautore=

|trinome=

|tridata=

<!-- ALTRO: -->

|sinonimi?=

|sinonimi=

|nomicomuni=

|suddivisione=[[Areale]]

|suddivisione_testo=[[File:Boselaphus_tragocamelus_map.png|230px]]

}}

Le '''foreste sempreverdi dei monti Daba''' sono un'[[ecoregione]] dell'[[ecozona paleartica]], definita dal [[WWF]] (codice ecoregione: PA0417), situata nella parte orientale della [[Cina]]<ref name=WWF>{{cita web|titolo=Daba Mountains evergreen forests|opera=Terrestrial Ecoregions|editore=World Wildlife Fund|url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/pa0417|accesso=5 febbraio 2017|lingua=en}}</ref>.

== Territorio ==

Il '''nilgau''' ('''''Boselaphus tragocamelus''''' <span style="font-variant: small-caps">[[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], [[1766]]</span>), [[Endemismo|endemico]] del subcontinente indiano, è la più grande [[Antilopinae|antilope]] [[asia]]tica. Unico membro del [[Genere (tassonomia)|genere]] '''''Boselaphus''''' <span style="font-variant: small-caps">[[Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville|de Blainville]], [[1816]]</span>, venne descritto e battezzato scienificamente dallo zoologo tedesco [[Peter Simon Pallas]] nel 1766. Misura 1-1,5 m di altezza al garrese; i maschi pesano 109-288 kg e le femmine, più piccole, 100-213 kg. Robusta antilope dalle zampe sottili, il nilgau è caratterizzato da una linea del dorso digradante, un collo tozzo con una macchia bianca sulla gola, una breve cresta di peli sul collo terminante in un ciuffo, e da macchie bianche sulla faccia. Una cresta di lunghi peli pende dalla giogaia al di sotto della macchia bianca. Il [[dimorfismo sessuale]] è molto marcato: mentre le femmine e i giovani sono di colore variabile dall'arancio al fulvo, i maschi adulti presentano un manto grigio-bluastro. Le [[Corno (biologia)|corna]], lunghe 15-24 cm, sono presenti solo nei maschi.

Le catene montuose dei [[Monti Daba|Daba]] e dei [[Monti Qin|Qinling]] costituiscono una delle aree più ricche di specie della Cina, e in passato sono state lo scenario di alcune appassionanti scoperte botaniche. Questi monti si estendono in direzione est-ovest e separano il [[bacino del Sichuan]] dalle pianure e dagli [[Altopiano del Loess|altopiani del loess]] della Cina settentrionale. Essi formano un'importante linea spartiacque tra i bacini dei due maggiori fiumi della Cina, il [[Fiume Azzurro]] (Yangtze) e il [[Fiume Giallo]] (Huang He). Questo bastione montuoso agisce inoltre come una barriera biogeografica che separa le [[Foresta pluviale tropicale|foreste subtropicali]] (soprattutto sempreverdi) e le specie ad esse associate, a sud, dalle [[Foreste di latifoglie e foreste miste temperate|foreste temperate]] (soprattutto decidue), a nord. Oltre a questo, i Daba Shan consentono lo sviluppo di fitte foreste sempreverdi che ospitano molte specie endemiche, tra cui molte specie di alberi antiche e minacciate come l'abete d'acqua (''[[Metasequoia glyptostroboides]]'').

I Daba Shan sono costituiti da alcune catene più piccole che delimitano il margine nord-orientale del bacino del Sichuan e si estendono ad est verso la pianura dello Yangtze. I monti giocano un ruolo significativo sul clima della regione, rendendo più miti gli altrimenti rigidi inverni del bacino del Sichuan e della pianura del Fiume Giallo. In quanto il versante meridionale dei Daba Shan fronteggia le pianure situate a sud, queste montagne sono relativamente calde e umide e ospitano piante ed animali di origine subtropicale<ref name=WWF/>.

Il nilgau è un animale [[Diurnalità|diurno]] (cioè attivo soprattutto di giorno). Più esemplari possono radunarsi insieme in tre tipi distinti di gruppi: una o due femmine con i piccoli, da tre a sei adulti e femmine giovani con i piccoli, e gruppi di soli maschi di 2-18 esemplari. Typically tame, the nilgai may appear timid and cautious if harassed or alarmed; it flees up to {{convert|300|m|ft}}-or even {{convert|700|m|ft}}, galloping away from the source of danger. Herbivores, nilgai prefer grasses and herbs, though they commonly eat [[woody plant]]s in the dry tropical forests of India. Females become [[sexually mature]] by two years, while males do not become sexually active until four or five years old. The time of the year when mating takes place varies geographically, but a peak breeding season lasting three to four months can be observed at most places.<!-- associated with supply of plants? probably known and could be added --> Gestation lasts eight to nine months, following which a single calf (sometimes twins or even triplets) is born. As typical of several bovid species, nilgai calves stay hidden for the first few weeks of their lives. The lifespan of the nilgai is around ten years.

== Flora ==

Nilgai prefer areas with short bushes and scattered trees in [[scrub forest]]s and grassy plains. They are common in agricultural lands, but hardly occur in dense forest. Major populations occur in the [[Terai]] lowlands in the foothills of the [[Himalaya]]s (northern India), but the antelope is sparsely found in Nepal and Pakistan and is extinct in [[Bangladesh]]. Nilgai were first introduced to [[Texas]] in the 1920s and the 1930s. As of 2008, the feral population in Texas is nearly 37,000. The nilgai is categorised as [[Least Concern]] by the [[IUCN]]. The nilgai has been associated with [[Indian culture]] since the [[Vedic period]] (1500–500 BCE). [[Hindu]]s revere the nilgai as sacred and associate it with the cow, the mother animal in [[Hinduism]], through its name and loosely similar physical features. They were hunted in the [[Mughal era]] (16th to 19th centuries) and are depicted in numerous miniatures. Nilgai have been considered a pest in several [[north India]]n states, as they ravage crop fields and cause considerable damage. In [[Bihar]], authorities have classified the nilgai as [[vermin]].

Le montagne poco elevate ai piedi dei Daba Shan sono ricoperte da una foresta mista Low mountains in the foothills of the Daba Shan support a mixed evergreen and deciduous association of oak species (Quercus acutissima, Q. variabilis) and an arboreal member of the mint family (Labiaceae spp.). Higher elevations support warm-temperate conifer forests of Chinese red pine (Pinus massoniana) and the higher elevation pine (P. armandii).

Much of the remaining intact habitat occurs in the eastern part of this ecoregion on the slopes of 3,100 m Shennongjia Mountain Nature Reserve (704 km2), a place renowned for its medicinal plants and dense forest cover. This region conserves a large amount of primary old-growth forest, some of the last in this part of China. Shennongjia Reserve is rich in vascular plants; there are more than 2,600 species of which 32 are under national protection. Some of the more significant species include dove tree (Davidia involucrata), the vesselless relict (Tetracentron sinense), Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Emmenopterys henryi and Eucommia ulmoides<ref name=WWF/>.

==Etymology==

The vernacular name "nilgai" ({{IPA-en|ˈnɪlˌgaɪ|pron}}) comes from the fusion of the Sanskrit word ''nil'' ("blue") and ''gai'' ("cow"). The word was first recorded in use in 1882.<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Nilgai|accessdate=8 March 2016}}</ref> Alternative origins could be from the Sanskrit ''gabhih'' ("female bovid"), or Persian ''gaw'' ("cow").<ref name=ms/> The nilgai has been referred to by a variety of names: neelghae,<ref name=ms/> nilgau, nilgo,<ref name=iucn/> nylghau,<ref name="gray">{{cite journal|last1=Gray|first1=J.E.|title=Synopsis of the species of antelopes and strepsiceres, with descriptions of new species|journal=[[Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London]]|date=1850|volume=18|pages=111–146|url=https://archive.org/stream/proceedings32londgoog#page/n150/mode/2up}}</ref> and nylghai,<ref name="pilgrim">{{cite journal|last1=Pilgrim|first1=G.E.|title=The fossil bovidae of India|journal=Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, New Series|date=1939|volume=26|pages=1–356}}</ref> constructions referring to other "blue" animals. They are also known as white-footed antelope.<ref name=ms/> During [[Mughal emperor]] [[Aurangzeb]]'s reign (1658–1707) of India, the nilgai was known by the name ''nilghor'' ("nil" for "blue" and "ghor" for "horse").<ref name=wai/>

==Taxonomy Fauna ==

Tra i mammiferi presenti vi sono il cervo del Caucaso (''[[Cervus elaphus maral]]''), il capriolo (''[[Capreolus capreolus]]''), il cinghiale (''[[Sus scrofa]]'') e la martora (''[[Martes martes]]''). Nonostante la foca monaca (''[[Monachus monachus]]'') sia ormai scomparsa da molto tempo dal litorale della Crimea, sono all'opera programmi che prevedono una sua eventuale reintroduzione. Altre due creature interessanti sono il tritone crestato di Karelin (''[[Triturus karelinii]]'') e il pelodite del Caucaso (''[[Pelodytes caucasicus]]''), entrambi endemici della regione. Nella riserva naturale della Crimea, situata sulle pendici dei monti Golovnyi, si raduna un gran numero di cigni (''[[Cygnus (zoologia)|Cygnus]]'' spp.) durante il periodo della muta. In alto nei cieli, i grifoni (''[[Gyps fulvus]]'') si librano per circa otto ore al giorno, spostandosi per centinaia di chilometri alla ricerca di carogne<ref name=WWF/>.

The [[scientific name]] of the nilgai is ''Boselaphus tragocamelus.'' The nilgai is the sole member of the [[Genus (biology)|genus]] ''Boselaphus'' and placed in the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Bovidae]]. The species was [[scientific description|described]] and given its binomial name by the German zoologist [[Peter Simon Pallas]] in 1766.<ref name=MSW3>{{MSW3|id=14200692|page=}}</ref> He based his description on a 1745 account of a male nilgai by British physician [[James Parsons (physician)|James Parsons]] in the 43rd volume of ''Philosophical Transactions'' (now known as the ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]]'').<ref name="parsons">{{cite journal|last1=Parsons|first1=J.|title=An account of a quadruped brought from Bengal and now to be seen in London|journal=Philosophical Transactions|date=1745|volume=43|pages=465–7|url=https://archive.org/stream/jstor-104493/104493#page/n1/mode/2up|doi=10.1098/rstl.1744.0089}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Renshaw|first1=G.|title=Final Natural History Essays|date=1907|publisher=Sherratt & Hughes|___location=Cambridge, England|pages=120–1}}</ref> The nilgai has one other relative in the [[Tribe (biology)|tribe]] [[Boselaphini]], the [[four-horned antelope]] (the sole member of ''[[Tetracerus]]'').<ref name=itis>{{ITIS|taxon=Boselaphus tragocamelus|id=552477 |accessdate=8 March 2016}}</ref>

== Conservazione ==

The generic name ''Boselaphus'' comes from the combination of the Latin ''bos'' ("cow" or "ox") and the Greek ''elaphos'' ("deer").<ref>{{MerriamWebsterDictionary|Boselaphus|accessdate=8 March 2016}}</ref> The specific name ''tragocamelus'' comes from the join of the two Greek words ''tragos'' ("he-goat") and ''kamelos'' ("camel"). The binomial combination was first used by English zoologist [[Philip Sclater]] in 1883.<ref name=ms/> ''Boselaphus'' has often been misspelled as ''Buselaphus'' (first used by [[Ludwig Reichenbach]] in 1845 for the [[red hartebeest]])<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Reichenbach|first1=H.G.L.|title=Die Vollständigste Naturgeschichte des In-und Auslandes|journal=Expedition der vollständigsten Naturgeschichte|date=1845|pages=141–2}}</ref> and ''Bosephalus'' (first used by [[Thomas Horsfield]] in 1851, when he mistook a nilgai specimen for a hartebeest in a museum catalogue of the [[East India Company]]).<ref name=ms>{{cite journal | author = D.M. Leslie | year = 2008 | title = ''Boselaphus tragocamelus'' (Artiodactyla: Bovidae) | journal = Mammalian Species | pages = Number 813: pp. 1–16 | doi = 10.1644/813.1 | volume=813 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1732&context=usgsstaffpub}}</ref>

Come la maggior parte degli [[ecosistemi mediterranei]], quest'area ha subito profonde modificazioni ad opera dell'agricoltura e della deforestazione. Specialmente lungo la costa, il turismo ha danneggiato molte aree attraverso attività di costruzione, compattazione del suolo e dispersione di rifiuti. Ulteriori problemi sono la raccolta incontrollata delle piante locali e gli incendi boschivi dolosi<ref name=WWF/>.

==Evolution Note ==

<references/>

A 1992 [[phylogenetic]] study of [[mtDNA|mitochondrial DNA]] sequences showed a strong possibility of a [[clade]] consisting of Boselaphini, [[Bovini]] and [[Tragelaphini]]. Bovini consists of the genera ''[[Bubalus]]'', ''[[Bos]]'', ''Pseudoryx'' ([[saola]]), ''Syncerus'' ([[African Buffalo]]), ''[[Bison]]'' and the [[extinct]] ''[[Pelorovis]]''. Tragelaphini consists of two genera: ''[[Taurotragus]]'' (eland) and ''[[Tragelaphus]]''. A closer relationship between Boselaphini and Tragelaphini was predicted,<ref name="allard">{{cite journal|last1=Allard|first1=M.W.|last2=Miyamoto|first2=M.M.|last3=Jarecki|first3=L.|last4=Kraus|first4=F.|last5=Tennant|first5=M.R.|title=DNA systematics and evolution of the artiodactyl family Bovidae|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|date=1992|volume=89|issue=9|pages=3972–6|pmid=1570322|pmc=525613|doi=10.1073/pnas.89.9.3972}}</ref> and seconded by a similar study in 1999.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hassanin|first1=A.|last2=Douzery|first2=E. J. P.|title=Evolutionary affinities of the enigmatic saola (''Pseudoryx nghetinhensis'') in the context of the molecular phylogeny of Bovidae|journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences| date=1999|volume=266|issue=1422|pages=893–900|doi=10.1098/rspb.1999.0720|pmid=10380679|pmc=1689916}}</ref>

{{clade | style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%;

|label1=

|1={{clade

|1= [[Bovini]]

|2= {{clade

|1=[[Tragelaphini]]

|2=[[Boselaphini]]}}}}}}

Though the tribe Boselaphini has no African representation today,<ref name="brain">{{cite book|last1=Brain|first1=C.K.|title=The Hunters or the Hunted? : An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy|date=1981|publisher=University of Chicago Press|___location=Chicago, US|isbn=978-0-226-07089-6|page=167}}</ref> [[fossil]] evidence supports its presence in the continent in the prehistoric times, as early as the late [[Miocene]]. The two living antelope species of this tribe have been found to have a closer relationship with the earliest bovids (like ''[[Eotragus]]'' species) than do the other bovids.<ref name=pilgrim/><ref name="pitra">{{cite journal|last1=Pitra|first1=C.|last2=Furbass|first2=R.|last3=Seyfert|first3=H.M.|title=Molecular phylogeny of the tribe Bovini (Mammalia: Artiodactyla): alternative placement of the Anoa|journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology|date=1997|volume=10|issue=4|pages=589–600|doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.1997.10040589.x}}</ref> This tribe originated at least 8.9 million years ago, in much the same area where the [[four-horned antelope]] lives today, and may represent the most "primitive" of all living bovids, having changed the least since the origins of the family.<ref name=Bibi2007>{{cite journal | author = Bibi, F. | year = 2007 | title = Origin, paleoecology, and paleobiogeography of early Bovini | journal = Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology | volume = 248 | issue = 1 | pages = 60–72 | doi = 10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.11.009}}</ref> The extant and extinct boselaphine forms show similar development of the [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]] cores (the central bony part of the horn).<ref name="solounias">{{cite journal|last1=Solounias|first1=N.|title=A new hypothesis uniting Boselaphus and Tetracerus with the Miocene Boselaphini (Mammalia, Bovidae) based on horn morphology|journal=Annales Musei Goulandris|date=1990|volume=8|pages=425–39}}</ref> Though the extant nilgai females lack horns, historic relatives of the antelope had horned females.<ref name="kostopoulus" /> Fossil relatives were once placed in the subfamily Cephalophinae<ref>{{cite book|last=Von Zittel| first=Karl A.| title=Text-book of Palaeontology. Volume III. Mammalia. |publisher=Macmillan and Co.|place=London| year=1925|pages=211–214 |url=https://archive.org/stream/textbookofpaleon31896zitt#page/210/mode/2up}}</ref> which now contains only the African [[duikers]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1471-2148-12-120|pmid=22823504|pmc=3523051|title=A multi-locus species phylogeny of African forest duikers in the subfamily Cephalophinae: Evidence for a recent radiation in the Pleistocene|journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology|volume=12|page=120|year=2012|last1=Johnston|first1=Anne R|last2=Anthony|first2=Nicola M}}</ref> Fossils of ''[[Protragoceros]]'' and ''[[Sivoreas]]'' dating back to the late Miocene have been discovered not only in Asia and southern Europe but also in the Ngorora formation ([[Kenya]]) and are thought to belong to the Boselaphini.<ref name="kostopoulus">{{cite journal|last1=Kostopoulus|first1=D.S.|title=The Bovidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from the late Miocene of Akkas¸dag˘i, Turkey|journal=Geodiversitas|date=2005|volume=27|pages=747–91|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dimitris_Kostopoulos2/publication/257306924_The_Bovidae_(Mammalia_Artiodactyla)_from_the_late_Miocene_of_Akkasdag_Turkey/links/0deec524da513b82ea000000.pdf}}</ref><ref name="benefit">{{cite journal|last1=Benefit|first1=B.R.|last2=Pickford|first2=M.|title=Miocene fossil cercopithecoids from Kenya|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|date=April 1986|volume=69|issue=4|pages=441–64|doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330690404}}</ref> Other Miocene fossils of boselaphines discovered are of ''[[Miotragocerus]]'', ''[[Tragocerus]]'' and ''[[Tragoportax]]''; fossils of ''Miotragoceros'' are not apparent in Africa (only ''M. cyrenaicus'' has been reported from the continent), but have significant presence in the [[Shiwalik Hills]] in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], as do several ''Tragoportax'' species. A 2005 study showed the migration of ''Miotragoceros'' to eastern Asia around eight million years ago.<ref name="zhang">{{cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Z.|title=Late Miocene Boselaphini (Bovidae, Artiodactyla) from Fugu, Shaanxi Province, China|journal=Vertebrata PalAsiatica|date=2005| volume=43|issue=3|pages=208–18|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262300595_Late_Miocene_Boselaphini_Bovidae_Artiodactyla_from_Fugu_Shaanxi_Province_China}}</ref> Alan W. Gentry of the [[Natural History Museum]] reported the presence of another boselaphine, ''[[Mesembriportax]]'', from [[Langebaanweg]] ([[South Africa]]).<ref name="ak">{{cite book|last1=WoldeGabriel|first1=G.|editor1-last=Haile-Selassie|editor1-first=Y.|title=Ardipithecus Kadabba : Late Miocene Evidence from the Middle Awash, Ethiopia|date=2009| publisher=University of California Press|___location=Berkeley| isbn=978-0-520-25440-4|pages=289–90}}</ref>

== Voci correlate ==

Remains of the nilgai dating back to the [[Pleistocene]] have been discovered from the Kurnool caves in southern India.<ref name="prasad">{{cite journal|last1=Prasad|first1=K.N.|title=Pleistocene cave fauna from peninsular India|journal=Journal of Caves and Karst Studies|date=1996|volume=58|pages=30–4}}</ref> Evidence suggests that they were hunted by humans during the [[Mesolithic]] period (5,000 to 8,000 years ago).<ref name="murty">{{cite journal|last1=Murty|first1=M.L.K.|title=Ethnoarchaeology of the Kurnool cave areas, South India|journal=World Archaeology|date=2010|volume=17|issue=2|pages=192–205|doi=10.1080/00438243.1985.9979962}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Patnaik|first=Rajeev|last2=Badam|first2=G. L.|last3=Murty|first3=M. L. K.|date=2008-12-01|title=Additional vertebrate remains from one of the Late Pleistocene—Holocene Kurnool Caves (Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi) of South India|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618207001784|journal=Quaternary International|series=Multiple Approaches to South Asian Paleoanthropology: A Tribute to Gudrun Corvinus|volume=192|issue=1|pages=43–51|doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2007.06.018|bibcode=2008QuInt.192...43P}}</ref>

* [[Lista delle ecoregioni terrestri]]

==Description==

[[File:Nilgai at Ranthambore.jpg|thumbnail|left|Close view of a male nilgai showing the facial markings, throat patch, beard and short horns.]]

The nilgai is the largest antelope in Asia.<ref name="wai">{{cite book|last1=Padhi|first1=S.|last2=Panigrahi|first2=G.K.|last3=Panda|first3=S.|title=The Wild Animals of India|date=2004|publisher=Biotech Books|___location=Delhi|isbn=81-7622-106-6|pages=26–7}}</ref><ref name="rafferty">{{cite book|editor1-last=Rafferty|editor1-first=J.P.|title=Grazers|date=2011|publisher=Britannica Educational Pub.|___location=New York, US|isbn=978-1-61530-336-6|pages=83–4|edition=1st}}</ref> It stands {{convert|1|-|1.5|m|ft}} at the shoulder;<ref name="texas">{{cite book|last1=Schmidly|first1=D.J.|title=The Mammals of Texas|date=2004|publisher=University of Texas Press|___location=Austin, Texas (US)|isbn=978-1-4773-0886-8|pages=283–4|edition=Revised}}</ref> the head-and-body length is typically between {{convert|1.7|-|2.1|m|ft}}.<ref name=wai/> Males weigh {{convert|109|-|288|kg|lb}}; the maximum weight recorded is {{convert|308|kg|lb}}. Females are lighter, weighing {{convert|100|-|213|kg|lb}}.<ref name=texas/> [[Sexual dimorphism]] is prominent; the males are larger than females and differ in colouration.<ref name=ms/>

A sturdy thin-legged antelope, the nilgai is characterised by a sloping back, a deep neck with a white patch on the throat, a short mane of hair behind and along the back ending behind the shoulder, and around two white spots each on its face, ears, cheeks, lips and chin.<ref name=wai/> The ears, tipped with black, are {{convert|15|-|18|cm|in}} long.<ref name=ms/> A column of coarse hair, known as the "pendant" and around {{convert|13|cm|in}} long in males, can be observed along the dewlap ridge below the white throat patch.<ref name=texas/> The tufted tail, up to {{convert|54|cm|in}},<ref name="clio"/> has a few white spots and is tipped with black.<ref name=wai/> The forelegs are generally longer,<ref name="clio">{{cite book|editor1-last=Eldredge|editor1-first=N.|title=Life on Earth : An Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution|date=2002|publisher=ABC-CLIO|___location=Santa Barbara, California (US)|isbn=978-1-57607-286-8|page=192}}</ref> and the legs are often marked with white "socks".<ref name=ms/>

While females and juveniles are orange to tawny, males are much darker – their [[Coat (animal)|coat]] is typically bluish grey. The [[ventral]] parts, the insides of the thighs and the tail are all white.<ref name="clio" /> A white stripe extends from the underbelly and broadens as it approaches the [[rump (animal)|rump]], forming a patch lined with dark hair.<ref name="texas" /> Almost white, though not [[Albinism in biology|albino]], individuals have been observed in the [[Sariska National Park]] ([[Rajasthan]], India)<ref>{{cite journal|date=1987|title=Unusual coloration of nilgai (''Boselaphus tragocamelus'')|url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/49081242|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=84|page=203|last1=Ranjitsinh|author-link=MK Ranjitsinh Jhala|first1=M.K.}}</ref> while individuals with white patches have been recorded at zoos.<ref>{{cite journal|year=1987|title=Albinism in the Blue bull or Nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (Pallas, 1766)|url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/49081500|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=84|pages=427–428|author=Smielowski, J.}}</ref> The hairs, typically {{convert|23|-|28|cm|in}} long, are fragile and brittle.<ref>{{cite journal|last2=Sabnis|first2=J.H.|date=1981|title=Aids to the identification of artiodactylan hairs with general comments on hair structure|url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48228823|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=78|pages=299–302|last1=Koppiker|first1=B.R.}}</ref> Males have thicker skin on their head and neck that protect them in fights.<ref name="wai" /> The coat is not well-insulated with fat during winter, and consequently severe cold might be fatal for the nilgai.<ref name="deal" />{{Gallery

|title=Nilgai – male and female

|width=200

|height=200

|lines=1

|align=right

|File:Boselaphus tragocamelus1.jpg|Male

|File:Nilgauantilope Boselaphus tragocamelus Zoo Augsburg-07.jpg|Female

}}Only males possess horns, though a few females may be horned as well. The horns are {{convert|15|-|24|cm|in}} long but generally shorter than {{Convert|30|cm|in}}.<ref name=wai/> Smooth and straight, these may point backward or forward.<ref name="lundeberg">{{cite book|last1=Lundeberg|first1=A.|last2=Seymour|first2=F.|title=The Great Roosevelt African Hunt and the Wild Animals of Africa|date=1910|publisher=D. B. McCurdy|___location=Chicago, US|isbn=978-5-519-33652-9|page=351}}</ref> The horns of the nilgai and the [[four-horned antelope]] lack the ringed structure typical of those of other bovids.<ref name="mp">{{cite book|last1=Tiwari|first1=S.K.|title=National Parks of Madhya Pradesh : State of Bio Diversity and Human Infringement|date=1998|publisher=APH Pub. Corp.|___location=New Delhi, India|isbn=978-81-7024-950-4|pages=110–2|edition=1st}}</ref>

The maximum recorded length of the skull is {{convert|376|mm|in}}. The [[dental formula]] is {{DentalFormula|upper=0.0.3.3|lower=3.1.3.3}}. The [[milk teeth]] are totally lost and the [[permanent dentition]] completed by three years of age. The permanent teeth get degraded with age, showing prominent signs of wear at six years of age. The nilgai has sharp ears and eyes,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Goetze|first1=J.R.|title=The Mammals of the Edwards Plateau, Texas|date=1998|publisher=Museum of Texas Tech University|___location=Lubbock, Texas (US)|isbn=978-0-9640188-7-7|page=242}}</ref> though its sense of smell is not as acute.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Brown| first1 = C.E.| year = 1936| title = Rearing wild animals in captivity, and gestation periods| journal = Journal of Mammalogy | volume = 17| issue = 1 | pages = 10–3| jstor = 1374541| doi=10.2307/1374541}}</ref>

==Ecology and behavior==

[[File:Nilgai zoo.jpg|thumbnail|left|A group of nilgai resting]]

The nilgai is [[diurnal animal|diurnal]] (active mainly during the day). A 1991 study investigated the daily routine of the antelope and found feeding peaks at dawn, in the morning, in the afternoon and during the evening.<ref name="oguya">{{cite journal|last1=Oguya|first1=B. R. O.|last2=Eltringham|first2=S. K.|title=Behaviour of nilgai (''Boselaphus tragocamelus'') antelope in captivity|journal=Journal of Zoology|date=1991|volume=223|issue=1|pages=91–102|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04751.x}}</ref> Females and juveniles do not interact appreciably with males, except during the mating season. Groups are generally small, with ten or fewer individuals, though groups of 20 to 70 individuals can occur at times.<ref name="texas" /> In a 1980 study in the [[Bardiya National Park]] ([[Nepal]]), the average herd size was of three individuals;<ref name="dinerstein">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=E.|title=An ecological survey of the Royal Karnali-Bardia Wildlife Reserve, Nepal. Part II: Habitat/animal interactions|journal=Biological Conservation|date=1979|volume=16|issue=4|pages=265–300|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(79)90055-7}}</ref> In a 1995 study in the [[Gir National Park]] ([[Gujarat]], India), herd membership varied with season.<ref name="khan">{{cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=J.A.|last2=Chellam|first2=R.|last3=Johnsingh|first3=A.J.T.|title=Group size and age-sex composition of three major ungulate species in Gir Lion Sanctuary, Gujarat, India|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|date=1995|volume=92|issue=295–302}}</ref> However, three distinct groupings are formed: one or two females with young calves, three to six adult and yearling females with calves, and male groups with two to 18 members.<ref name="sankar" />

[[File:Nilgai running.jpg|thumbnail|A nilgai running]]

Typically tame, the nilgai may appear timid and cautious if harassed or alarmed; instead of seeking cover like [[duiker]]s it would flee up to {{convert|300|m|ft}}-or even {{convert|700|m|ft}} on galloping-away from the danger.<ref name="sheffield">{{cite journal|last1 = Sheffield | first1 = W.J.| year = 1983| title = Food habits of nilgai antelope in Texas| journal = Journal of Range Management | volume = 36| issue = 3 | pages = 316–22| jstor = 3898478 | doi=10.2307/3898478}}</ref> Though generally quiet, nilgai have been reported to make short guttural grunts when alarmed, and females to make clicking noises when nursing young.<ref name="sankar" /><ref name="Goldman1980">{{cite journal|last1=Goldman|first1=J.E.|last2=Stevens|first2=V.J.|title=The birth and development of twin Nilgai ''Boselaphus tragocamelus'' at Washington Park Zoo, Portland|journal=International Zoo Yearbook|date=January 1980|volume=20|issue=1|pages=234–40|doi=10.1111/j.1748-1090.1980.tb00982.x}}</ref> Alarmed individuals, mainly juveniles below five months, give out a coughing roar (whose pitch is highest in case of the juveniles) that lasts half a second, but can be heard by herds less than {{convert|500|m|ft}} away and responded to similarly.<ref name="ms" />

Fights take place in both sexes and involve pushing their necks against each other or ramming into one another using horns. Fights can be gory; despite the protective skin deep, lacerated wounds and even deaths might occur.<ref name="ms" /> [[Display (zoology)|Display]] behaviour focuses on the throat patch and the beard, and threatening opponents by pointing the horns toward them. A young male was observed making a submissive display in the Sariska Reserve by kneeling before an adult male, who stood erect.<ref name="sankar" /> The nilgai mark their territories by forming dung piles as much as {{convert|50|cm|in}} in radius. The defecation process is elaborate-the antelope stands with his legs about a metre apart, with the rump lowered and the tail held almost vertical; it stays in the same posture for at least ten seconds after relieving itself. The process is not as elaborate in the females as it is in the males.<ref name="sheffield" />[[File:Nilgais fighting, Lakeshwari, Gwalior district, India.jpg|thumbnail|left|Sparring males]]In India, the nilgai shares its habitat with the four-horned antelope, [[chinkara]], [[chital]] and [[blackbuck]]; its association with the [[gaur]] and the [[water buffalo]] is less common.<ref name=ms/> In the [[Ranthambore National Park]] (Rajasthan, India) the nilgai and the chinkara collectively prefer the area rich in ''[[Acacia]]'' and ''[[Butea]]'' species, while the [[Sambar (deer)|sambar deer]] and the chital preferred the forests of ''[[Anogeissus]]'' and ''[[Grewia]]'' species.<ref name="bagchi">{{cite journal|last1=Bagchi|first1=S.|last2=Goyal|first2=S. P.|last3=Sankar|first3=K.|title=Niche relationships of an ungulate assemablage in a dry tropical forest|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|date=2003|volume=84|issue=3|pages=981–8|doi=10.1644/BBa-024}}</ref> In India, the [[Indian tiger]] and the [[lion]] may prey on the nilgai but they are not significant predators of this antelope.<ref name=bagchi/> [[Leopard]]s prey on the nilgai, though they prefer smaller prey.<ref name="hayward">{{cite journal|last1=Hayward|first1=M.W.|last2=Henschel|first2=P.|last3=O'Brien|first3=J.|last4=Hofmeyr|first4=M.|last5=Blame|first5=G.|last6=Kerley|first6=G.I.H.|title=Prey preferences of the leopard (''Panthera pardus'')|journal=Journal of Zoology|date=2006|volume=270|pages=298–313|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00139.x}}</ref> [[Dhole]]s generally attack juveniles.<ref name=ms/> Other predators include [[Wolf|wolves]]<ref name=Jethva2004>{{cite journal |last1=Jethva |first1=B.D. |last2=Jhala |first2=Y.V. |year=2004 |title=Foraging ecology, economics and conservation of Indian wolves in the Bhal region of Gujarat, western India |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=351–357 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00218-0}}</ref> and [[striped hyena]]s.<ref name=ms/>

===Diet===

[[File:Adult male nilgai browsing in trees outside Burla.jpg|thumbnail|Nilgai can reach for high branches.]]

Herbivores, the nilgai prefer grasses and herbs; [[woody plant]]s are commonly eaten in the dry tropical forests of India. Studies suggest they may be [[Browsing (herbivory)|browsers]]<ref name=dinerstein/> or mixed feeders<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Haque|first1=N.|title=Study on the ecology of wild ungulates of Keoladeo National Park Bharatpur, Rajasthan|journal=PhD Thesis, Centre for Wildlife and Ornithology, Aligarh Muslim University|date=1990|pages=1–308}}</ref> in India, whereas they are primarily grazers in Texas.<ref name=sheffield/> The nilgai can tolerate interference by livestock and degradation of vegetation in its habitat better than [[deer]],<ref name=sheffield/> possibly because they can reach high branches and do not depend on surface vegetation.<ref name=sankar/> The sambar deer and nilgai in Nepal have similar dietary preferences.<ref name=dinerstein/> Diets generally suffice in protein and fats.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Khan|first1=A.A.|title=A note on nutritive value of forages for nilgai|journal=Pakistan Journal of Forestry|date=1979|volume=29|issue=3|pages=199–202|issn=0030-9818}}</ref> The protein content of the nilgai's should be at least seven percent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Priebe|first1=J.C|last2=Brown|first2=R.D|title=Protein requirements of subadult nilgai antelope|journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A|date=1987|volume=88|issue=3|pages=495–501|doi=10.1016/0300-9629(87)90070-3}}</ref> The nilgai can survive for long periods without water and do not drink regularly even in summer.<ref name=ms/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Prater|first1=S.H.|title=The Wild Animals of the Indian Empire and the problems of their preservation. Part 2.|journal=Journal of Bombay Natural History Society|date=1934|volume=37|pages=59–96|url=https://archive.org/stream/journalofbomb37121934bomb#page/71/mode/1up/}}</ref> However, a nilgai died in [[Dwarka]] (India) allegedly due to the heat wave and acute shortage of water.<ref>{{cite news|first1=Mail Today| last1=Bureau|title=Delhi's heat wave kills Nilgai in Dwarka|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/delhi-heat-wave-kills-nilgai-dwarka-wild-animals/1/440659.html|accessdate=9 March 2016|work=India Today|date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

A 1994 study of the nilgai's diet in the Sariska Reserve revealed its preference for herbs and grasses; grasses became more important in the rainy season, while during winter and summer it fed additionally on flowers (''[[Butea monosperma]]''), foliage (''[[Anogeissus pendula]]'', ''[[Capparis sepiaria]]'', ''[[Grewia flavescens]]'' and ''[[Zizyphus mauritiana]]''), pods (''[[Acacia nilotica]]'', ''[[Acacia catechu|A. catechu]]'' and [[Acacia leucophloea|A. leucophloea]]) and fruits (''Zizyphus mauritiana'').<ref name=sankar/> Preferred grass species include ''[[Cenchrus]]'' species, ''[[Cynodon dactylon]]'', ''[[Desmostachya bipinnata]]'', ''[[Scirpus tuberosus]]'' and ''[[Vetiveria zizanoides]]''. Woody plants eaten include ''Acacia nilotica'', ''A. senegal'', ''A. leucophloea'', ''[[Clerodendrum phlomidis]]'', ''[[Crotalaria burhia]]'', ''[[Indigofera oblongifolia]]'', ''[[Morus alba]]'' and ''[[Zizyphus nummularia]]''; herbs favoured are ''[[Cocculus hirsutus]]'', ''[[Euphorbia hirta]]'' and ''[[Sida rhombifolia]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Solanki|first1=G.S.|last2=Naik|first2=R.M.|title=Grazing interactions between wild and domestic herbivores|journal=Small Ruminant Research|date=1998|volume=27|issue=3|pages=231–5|doi=10.1016/S0921-4488(97)00038-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mirza|first1=Z.B.|last2=Khan|first2=M.A.|title=Study of distribution, habitat and food of nilgai ''Boselaphus tragocamelus'' in Punjab|journal=Pakistan Journal of Zoology|date=1975|volume=7|pages=209–14}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=1992|title=Notes on the food habits of nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus.|url=http://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/48732563|journal=Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|volume=89|pages=115–116|author1=Sankar, K.|author2=Vijayan, V. S.}}</ref> Seeds of ''[[Paspalum distichum]]'' occurred in the dung of nilgai most of the year; ''Acacia nilotica'' and ''[[Prosopis juliflora]]'' seeds were discovered in the dry season and those of ''[[Echinochloa crusgalli]]'' during the monsoon.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Middleton| first1 = B.A.| last2=Mason| first2=D.H. |year = 1992| title = Seed herbivory by nilgai, feral cattle, and wild boar in the Keoladeo National Park, India | journal = Biotropica| volume = 24| issue = 4 | pages = 538–43| jstor = 2389017 | doi=10.2307/2389017}}</ref>

===Reproduction===

[[File:Nilgai mating at Bandhavgarh National Park.jpg|thumbnail|left|Nilgai mating]]

Observations of females in southern Texas revealed that [[Ovary|ovaries]] are developed by two years of age and the first birth takes place typically a year later, though in a few cases females as young as one-and-a-half years may mate successfully.<ref name=texas/> Females can breed again around a year after parturition.<ref name=ms/> Males in the same ___location were found to have active [[Testis|testes]] by the age of three years, that [[sexual maturity|matured]] considerably by the next year.<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Lochmiller| first1 = R.L.| last2 = Sheffield | first2 = W.J.| year = 1989| title = Reproductive traits of male nilgai antelope in Texas

| journal = The Southwestern Naturalist | volume = 34| issue = 2 | pages = 276–8| jstor = 3671738 | doi=10.2307/3671738}}</ref> Males become sexually active at four or five years. Mating may occur throughout the year, with peaks of three to four months. The time of the year when these peaks occur varies geographically. In Texas, a peak is apparent from December to March.<ref name="deal">{{cite book|last1=Deal|first1=K.H.|title=Wildlife and natural resource management|date=2011|publisher=Delmar Cengage Learning|___location=Clifton Park, New York|isbn=978-1-4354-5397-5|page=155|edition=3rd}}</ref> In [[Bharatpur National Park]] (Rajasthan, India) the breeding season is from October to February, peaking in November and December. The Sariska reserve witnesses a similar peak in December and January.<ref name="sankar">{{cite journal|last1=Sankar|first1=K.|last2=Johnsingh|first2=A.J.T.|last3=Acharya|first3=B.|title=Blue bull or nilgai|journal=Envis Bulletin (Wildlife and Protected Areas) : Ungulates of India|date=2004|volume=7|issue=1|pages=29–40|url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bhaskar_Acharya/publication/230668415_Blue_Bull_or_Nilgai_%28Boselaphus_tragocamelus_Pallas_1766%29/links/0deec519f82eba8400000000.pdf|issn=0972-088X}}</ref>

[[File:Boselaphus tragocamelus-no watermark.jpg|thumbnail|right|A mother with her calves]]

In the mating season, [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rutting]] males move about in search of females in [[oestrus]].<ref name=sankar/> Males become aggressive and fight among themselves for [[Dominance (ethology)|dominance]]. These fights are characterised by displays of the enlarged chest, the throat patch and the beard while holding the head upright; and threatening the opponent by running with the horns pointed toward him and circling him.<ref name=sheffield/><ref name="cowan">{{cite journal|last1=Cowan|first1=I. McT.|last2=Geist|first2=V.|title=Aggressive behavior in deer of the genus ''Odocoileus''|journal=Journal of Mammalogy|date=1961|volume=42|issue=4|pages=522–6|doi=10.2307/1377372}}</ref> The victorious bull would protect the vicinity of the targeted female from other males. The courtship typically lasts for 45 minutes. The male, stiff and composed, approaches the receptive female, who keeps her head low to the ground and may slowly walk forward. The male licks her genitalia, upon which the female holds her tail to a side and the male gives out a [[flehmen response]]. Finally, the male pushes his chest against her rump, and mounts her.<ref name=sheffield/>

Gestation lasts eight to nine months, following which a single calf or twins (even triplets at times) are born. In a 2004 study in the Sariska reserve, twins accounted for as high as 80 percent of the total calf population.<ref name=sankar/> Births peak from June to October in the Bharatpur National Park, and from April to August in southern Texas. Calves are precocial; they are able to stand within 40 minutes of birth, and forage by the fourth week.<ref name=wai/> Pregnant females isolate themselves before giving birth. As typical of several bovid species, nilgai calves are kept in hiding for the first few weeks of their lives. This period of concealment can last as long as a month in Texas.<ref name=sheffield/> Calves, mainly males, bicker playfully by neck-fighting.<ref name="oguya"/> Young males would leave their mothers at ten months to join bachelor groups.<ref name=clio/> The lifespan of the nilgai is typically ten years in Texas.<ref name=texas/>

==Habitat and distribution==

[[File:Nilgai in Blackbuck National Park 02.jpg|thumb|left|Nilgai prefer areas with low bushes.]]

Nilgai prefer areas with short bushes and scattered trees in [[scrub forest]]s and grassy plains. They are common in agricultural lands, but hardly occur in dense woods. In southern Texas, it roams in the prairies, scrub forests and [[oak]] forests. It is a [[Generalist and specialist species|generalist]] animal-it can adapt to a variety of habitats.<ref name=ms/> Though sedentary and less dependent on water, nilgai may desert their territories if all water sources in and around it dry up.<ref name=sheffield/> Territories in Texas are {{Convert|0.6|to|8.1|sqkm|sqmi}} large.<ref name=ms/>

This antelope is [[endemic]] to the [[Indian subcontinent]]: major populations occur in India, Nepal and Pakistan, whereas it is extinct in [[Bangladesh]]. Significant numbers occur in the [[Terai]] lowlands in the foothills of the [[Himalaya]]s; the antelope is abundant across northern India.<ref name="mallon">{{cite book|last1=Mallon|first1=D.P.|last2=Kingswood|first2=S.C.|last3=East|first3=R.|title=Antelopes : global survey and regional action plans|date=1900|publisher=IUCN|___location=Gland, Switzerland|isbn=978-2-8317-0594-1|page=189}}</ref> The Indian population was estimated at one million in 2001.<ref name=iucn/> The nilgai were first introduced to [[Texas]] in the 1920s and the 1930s in a {{convert|6000|acre|ha}} large ranch near the Norias Division of the [[King Ranch]], one of the largest ranches in the world. The feral population saw a spurt toward the latter part of the 1940s, and gradually spread out to adjoining ranches.<ref name="teer">{{cite book|last1=Teer|first1=James G.|title=It's a Long Way from Llano : The Journey of a Wildlife Biologist|date=2008|publisher=Texas A & M University Press|___location=College Station, Texas (US)|isbn=978-1-60344-068-4|pages=98–104|edition=1st}}</ref>

[[File:Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) bull (19725141044).jpg|thumb|Nilgai search for new areas if they run out of water.]]

Population densities show great geographical variation across India. Density can be as low as 0.23 to 0.34 individuals per km² in the [[Indravati National Park]] ([[Chhattisgarh]])<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Pandey|first1=R.K.|title=Habitat utilization and diurnal activity pattern in Indian wild buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis'' Linn.) in Indravati Wildlife National Park, India: a study of habitat/animal interactions|journal=Journal of Tropical Ecology|date=1988|volume=4|pages=269–80}}</ref> and 0.4 individuals per km² in the [[Pench Tiger Reserve]] ([[Madhya Pradesh]])<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Biswas|first1=S.|last2=Sankar|first2=K.|title=Prey abundance and food habit of tigers (''Panthera tigris tigris'') in Pench National Park, Madhya Pradesh, India|journal=Journal of Zoology|date=2002|volume=256|issue=3|pages=411–20|doi=10.1017/S0952836902000456}}</ref> or as high as 6.60 to 11.36 individuals per km² and Ranthambhore National

Park and 7 individuals per km² in [[Keoladeo National Park]] (both in Rajasthan).<ref name=bagchi2>{{cite journal|last1=Bagchi|first1=S.|last2=Goyal|first2=S.P.|last3=Sankar|first3=K.|title=Herbivore density and biomass in a semi-arid tropical dry deciduous forest of western India|journal=Journal of Tropical Ecology|date=2004|volume=20|issue=4|pages=475–8|doi=10.1017/S026646740400166X}}</ref> Seasonal variations were noted in the Bardiya National Park (Nepal) in a 1980 study; the density 3.2 individuals per km² during the dry season and 5 per km² in April (the start of the dry season).<ref name=dinerstein/> In southern Texas, densities were found to be nearly 3–5 individuals per km² in 1976.<ref name=ms/>

Historic notes mention nilgai in southern India, but these may have been feral:<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/notesonjerdonsma00mcmarich#page/124/mode/2up|title=Notes on Jerdon's Mammals of India|date=1871|publisher=Higginbothams|___location=Madras (Chennai), India|pages=124–125|last1=McMaster|first1=A.C.}}</ref>

{{quote|I believe that the Coimbatore and Salem collectorates are almost the only places in Southern India, in which nil-gai are to be found. It is difficult to account for the animals being thus so widely divided from their usual haunts unless as has been generally supposed, these Southern specimens are the progeny of a semi-domesticated herd, which, at some by-gone period, had escaped from the preserve of a native potentate.|Andrew Cooke McMaster (''Notes on Jerdon's Mammals of India'', 1871)}}

==Threats and conservation==

[[File:Female_neelgai_1_gir_2006_karthick.jpg|thumb|right|Nilgai in the [[Gir National Park]], [[Gujarat]] (India)]]

The nilgai is categorised as of [[Least Concern]] by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural resources ([[IUCN]]).<ref name=iucn/> While it is common in India, the nilgai occurs sparsely in Nepal and Pakistan.<ref name=mallon/> The major reasons behind its decimation in these two countries and extinction in Bangladesh are rampant hunting, deforestation and habitat degradation in the 20th century. As of 2008, the feral population in Texas was nearly 37,000.<ref name=iucn/> Wild populations also exist in the US states of [[Alabama]], [[Florida]] and [[Mississippi]] and the Mexican state of [[Tamaulipas]], where they have escaped from private exotic ranches.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} The population around the Texas-Mexico border is estimated to be around 30,000 (as of 2011).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Cárdenas-Canales|first1=E.M.|last2=Ortega-Santos|first2=J.A.|last3=Campbell|first3=T.A.|last4=García-Vázquez|first4=Z.|last5=Cantú-Covarrubias|first5=A.|last6=Figueroa-Millán|first6=J.V.|last7=DeYoung|first7=R.W.|last8=Hewitt|first8=D.G.|last9=Bryant|first9=F.C.|title=Nilgai antelope in northern Mexico as a Possible Carrier for Cattle Fever Ticks and Babesia bovis and Babesia bigemina|journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases|date=2011|volume=47|issue=3|pages=777–9|doi=10.7589/0090-3558-47.3.777|pmid=21719852|url=http://www.aphis.usda.gov/wildlife_damage/nwrc/publications/11pubs/campbell114.pdf }}</ref>

In India, the nilgai is protected under Schedule III of the [[Wildlife Protection Act of 1972]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Environment ministry may allow hunting of 'nuisance' wild animals|url=http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment-ministry-may-allow-hunting-of-nuisance-wild-animals-50140|accessdate=11 March 2016|work=[[Down to Earth (magazine)|Down to Earth]]|date=11 June 2015}}</ref> Major protected areas for the nilgai across India include: Gir National Park (Gujarat); Bandhavgarh National Park, [[Bori Wildlife Sanctuary]], [[Kanha National Park]], [[Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve]], [[Panna Tiger Reserve]], Pench Tiger Reserve, [[Sanjay National Park]], [[Satpura National Park]] (Madhya PRadesh); [[Tadoba Andhari Tiger Project#Tadoba Andhari Reserve|Tadoba Andhari Reserve]] ([[Maharashtra]]); [[Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary]], Sultanpur National Park in Gurgaon, Ranthambore National Park and Sariska Tiger Reserve (Rajasthan).<ref name="belsare">{{cite book|last1=Belsare|first1=D.K.|title=Vanishing Roar of Bengal Tigers|date=2011|publisher=RoseDog Books|___location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (US)|isbn=978-1-4349-8509-5|pages=17–29}}</ref>

==Interactions with humans==

Remains of nilgai have been excavated at [[Pandu Rajar Dhibi]] ([[West Bengal]], India), suggesting that they were domesticated or hunted in [[eastern India]]{{disambiguation needed|date=October 2016}} in the [[Neolithic]] period (6500–1400 BCE)<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=R.S.|title=Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India|date=2007|publisher=Macmillan India|___location=New Delhi|isbn=978-0-230-63380-3|page=129|edition=2nd}}</ref> and during the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] (3300–1700 BCE) in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mallory|first1=J.P.|last2=Adams|first2=D.Q.|title=Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture|date=1997|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|___location=London|isbn=978-1-884964-98-5|page=256|edition=1st}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2011|title=Faunal Remains from Shikarpur, a Harappan Site in Gujarat, India|journal=Iranian journal of archaeological studies|volume=1|pages=16–25|author1=Joglekar, Pramod P.|author2=Goyal, Pankaj}}</ref> There is a reference to the nilgai in the ''[[Aitareya Brahmana]]'' (a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] religious text dated 500–1000 BCE), where one of the [[Prajapati]]s (progenitor god) is said to have assumed the form of a nilgai:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Parpola|first1=A.|title=The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization|date=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|___location=Oxford, UK|isbn=978-0-19-022692-3|page=247}}</ref>

{{Quote|Prajapati desired his own daughter&nbsp;... Having become a nilgai bull he approached her who had become a nilgai cow&nbsp;... The gods saw him and said: "Prajapati is doing a deed that is not done".}}

[[File:Nilgai (blue bull).jpg|thumbnail|right|Nilgai illustrated by [[Ustad Mansur]] for [[Jahangir]] (1605–27), c. 1620]]

Nilgai are extensively featured in paintings, dagger hilts and texts from the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] era (16th to 19th centuries);<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moore|first1=C.|editor1-last=Ekhtiar|editor1-first=M.|title=Art of the Islamic World : A Resource for Educators|date=2013|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|___location=New York, US|isbn=978-0-300-19181-3|page=158}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Newton|first1=D.|title=The Pacific Islands, Africa, and the Americas|date=1987|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|___location=New York, US|isbn=978-0-87099-461-6|page=145}}</ref> their representation, however, is less frequent than that of horses and camels.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Alexander|first1=D.|last2=Pyhrr|first2=S.W.|last3=Kwiatkowski|first3=W.|title=Islamic Arms and Armor: in The Metropolitan Museum of Art|date=2015|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|___location=New York, US|isbn=978-1-58839-570-2|page=212}}</ref> On being disturbed while hunting nilgai, the Mughal emperor [[Jahangir]] recorded his ire:<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eraly|first1=Abraham|title=The Mughal World : Life in India's Last Golden Age|date=2007|publisher=Penguin Books|___location=New Delhi, India|isbn=978-0-14-310262-5|page=259}}</ref>

{{Quote|Suddenly a groom and two bearers appeared, and the nilgai escaped. In a great rage, I ordered them to kill the groom on the spot and hamstring the bearers and mount them on asses and parade them through the camp.}}

For centuries Indian villagers have associated the nilgai with the [[cow]], a sacred animal revered by [[Hindu]]s, and the name ("gai" means "cow" in Hindi) indicates the similarity they saw with the cow.<ref name=clio/><ref name="lewis">{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=M.|title=Inventing Global Ecology : Tracking the Biodiversity Ideal in India, 1945–1997|date=2003|publisher=Orient Longman|___location=New Delhi, India|isbn=978-81-250-2377-7|page=286}}</ref> The nilgai is rarely consumed by Hindus due to its religious significance. Tribes such as the [[Bishnoi]]s traditionally take care of wild animals like the nilgai.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/jaipur/This-vet-treats-700-wild-patients-a-year/articleshow/51228019.cms|title=This vet treats 700 wild patients a year!|date=2 March 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|last1=Thomas|first1=R.|accessdate=9 March 2016}}</ref> The nilgai was not widely hunted until the 20th century, when habitat degradation and poaching became rampant.<ref name="mc">{{cite book|last1=Armstrong|first1=M.|title=Wildlife and Plants: Volume 12|date=2007|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|___location=New York, US|isbn=978-0-7614-7705-1|pages=718–9|edition=3rd}}</ref><ref name="brendt">{{cite book|last1=Brendt|first1=R.|title=Worldwide Hunting Adventures: Memories of the Hunt|date=2013|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|___location=Bloomington, Indiana (US)|isbn=978-1-4836-4617-6|pages=118–22}}</ref> The meat of nilgai is said to be lighter and milder flavoured than [[blackbuck]] meat.<ref name=lundeberg/><ref>{{cite book|title=Field Guide to Meat : How to Identify, Select and Prepare Virtually Every Meat, Poultry and Game Cut|date=2005|publisher=Quirk Books|isbn=978-1-59474-017-6|___location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|page=264|last1=Green|first1=A.}}</ref>

===Culling and conservation===

The populations of nilgai in India are so large that farmers in the states of [[Bihar]], Chhattisgarh, [[Haryana]], Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and [[Uttar Pradesh]] have pleaded to the government to cull them. Nilgai herds raid and trample crop fields across these states,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Goyal|first1=S.K.|last2=Rajpurohit|first2=L.S.|title=Nilgai, ''Boselaphus tragocamelus'' – a mammalian crop pest around Jodhpur|journal=Uttar Pradesh Journal of Zoology|date=2000|volume=20|issue=1|pages=55–9|issn=0256-971X}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Kumar|first1=A.|title=Now, Bihar farmers hope for a reprieve from Nilgai|url=http://www.deccanherald.com/content/532878/now-bihar-farmers-hope-reprieve.html|accessdate=10 March 2016|work=[[Deccan Herald]]|date=6 March 2016}}</ref> often causing food shortages.<ref name="et"/><ref>{{cite news|last1=Dabas|first1=H.|title=As Nilgai destroy fields, cane farmers urged to grow pulses|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/meerut/As-Nilgai-destroy-fields-cane-farmers-urged-to-grow-pulses/articleshow/49587588.cms|accessdate=9 March 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=29 October 2015}}</ref>

Farmers use live electric wires to guard their farms, which kills other animals as well.<ref name="lenin">{{cite news|last1=Lenin|first1=J.|title=India: Changing the nilgai's name as a management strategy|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/india-untamed/2014/dec/27/changing-nilgais-name-management-strategy|accessdate=9 March 2016|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=27 December 2014}}</ref> Farmers in [[Neemuch]] (Madhya Pradesh) went on a hunger strike in 2015 demanding compensation for the damage caused by nilgai.<ref>{{cite news|author=Times News Network|title=Nilgai menace drives Neemuch farmers to edge|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/indore/Nilgai-menace-drives-Neemuch-farmers-to-edge/articleshow/50254024.cms|accessdate=9 March 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=20 December 2015}}</ref> Although blackbuck cause a similar problem, the damage caused by them is significantly lower as they merely break off young shoots.<ref name=chauhan>{{cite journal|last1=Chauhan|first1=N.P.S.|last2=Singh|first2=R.|title=Crop damage by overabundant populations of nilgai and blackbuck in Haryana (India) and its management (Paper 13)|journal=Proceedings of the Fourteenth Vertebrate Pest Conference 1990|date=1990|pages=218–20|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=vpc14}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Chauhan|first1=N.P.S.|last2=Sawarkar|first2=V.B.|title=Problems of over-abundant populations of 'Nilgai' and 'Blackbuck' in Haryana and Madhya Pradesh and their management|journal=The Indian Forester|date=1989|volume=115|issue=7}}</ref> A 1990 study suggested culling, building enclosures for the antelopes and fencing off agricultural areas as remedies for the menace.<ref name=chauhan/>

The governments of Bihar,<ref name=et/> Maharashtra<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kulkarni|first1=D.|title=Maharashtra government wants nilgai, wild boar to be declared vermin|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-maharashtra-government-wants-nilgai-wild-boar-to-be-declared-vermin-2180592|accessdate=10 March 2016|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|date=22 February 2016}}</ref> and [[Uttarakhand]]<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sharma|first1=S.|title=U'khand asks MoEF to declare wild boar, nilgai vermin|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/dehradun/Ukhand-asks-MoEF-to-declare-wild-boar-nilgai-vermin/articleshow/48300138.cms|accessdate=9 March 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|date= 31 July 2015}}</ref> have urged the [[Government of India]] to declare the nilgai as [[vermin]]; the proposal has been implemented in Bihar, where nilgai can now be hunted to minimise the damages incurred by locals.<ref name="et">{{cite news|last1=Vishnoi|first1=A.|title=Centre allows Bihar to cull Nilgai herds and wild pigs; declares them 'vermin'|url=http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2015-12-15/news/69061867_1_environment-ministry-blue-bull-bihar-government|accessdate=10 March 2016|work=[[The Economic Times]]|date=15 December 2015}}</ref> The [[Government of Uttar Pradesh|Uttar Pradesh government]] has given farmers and firearm licence holders the right to cull the animals.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Akhef|first1=M.|title=Govt allows culling of nilgai, wild boar|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/aurangabad/Govt-allows-culling-of-nilgai-wild-boar/articleshow/48274780.cms|accessdate=9 March 2016|work=[[The Times of India]]|date=30 June 2015}}</ref> However, animal rights activists in various parts of [[India]] were unhappy with the decision.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Singh|first1=V.A.|title=Animal rights groups unhappy with government's decision to declare nilgai as vermin|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-animal-rights-groups-unhappy-with-government-s-decision-to-declare-nilgai-as-vermin-2182775|accessdate=10 March 2016|work=[[Daily News and Analysis]]|date=27 February 2016}}</ref> Shivanshu K. Srivastava, a [[columnist]] and [[Activism|social activist]], wrote that "The culling of nilgais (blue bulls) in Bihar in July 2016 was so deplorable that it doesn't need any justification. The excuse given for this slew by the State government, the then environment minister Prakash Javadekar and the judiciary is so illogical that it mocks all the solutions available to stop the nilgais from destroying the farms. We live in the 21st century and culling is only the very last option we have. The farmers can either opt for fencing around the farmlands or if it's unaffordable, then the government can give ordinances to relocate them to the forests."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.metroindia.com/news/article/27/08/2016/animals-ought-to-have-fundamental-rights/35790|title=Animals ought to have fundamental rights|last=India|first=Metro|website=Metroindia|language=en|access-date=2017-03-02}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.observerbd.com/details.php?id=30459|title=Animals, too, have the right to live|website=www.observerbd.com|access-date=2017-03-02}}</ref> The state governments have attempted other initiatives to curb the nilgai menace: in November 2015, the [[Government of Rajasthan|Rajasthan government]] came up with a proposal to allow shooting nilgai with non-lethal darts to inhibit [[fertilisation]] in their bodies, so as to regulate their increasing populations.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Mazoomdaar|first1=J.|title=A new sport in Rajasthan: Shoot and save the nilgai|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/a-new-sport-in-rajasthan-shoot-and-save-the-nilgai/|accessdate=9 March 2016|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=12 November 2015}}</ref> As the name "nilgai" appeals to the religious sentiments of Hindus, the [[Government of Madhya Pradesh]] has sought to officially rename it as ''rojad'' (Hindi for "forest antelope") and the Government of Haryana to rename it as ''roze'' in a bid to make their culling acceptable.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ghatwai|first1=M.|title=To save crops and legitimise killing nilgai, Madhya Pradesh renames it to 'rojad' in rulebooks|url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-news-india/to-save-crops-and-kill-nilgai-madhya-pradesh-renames-it-to-rojad-in-rulebooks/|accessdate=10 March 2016|work=[[The Indian Express]]|date=3 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Kidwai|first1=R.|title=Change nilgai name and cull it|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1160302/jsp/nation/story_72352.jsp#.VuD_ZNCmSpo|accessdate=10 March 2016|work=[[Telegraph (Brisbane)|The Telegraph]]|date=1 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/haryana-to-change-name-of-nilgai-to-roze/article8368469.ece|title=Haryana to change name of nilgai to roze|date=18 March 2016|newspaper=The Hindu|accessdate=29 May 2016}}</ref>

A 1994 study drew attention to the ecological value provided by the nilgai in [[ravine]]s lining the [[Yamuna River]]. In summer, the faeces of the antelope contained nearly 1.6 percent nitrogen, that could enhance the quality of the soil up to a depth of {{convert|30|cm|in}}. Seeds in the droppings could easily germinate and assist in afforestation.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Prajapati|first1=M.C.|last2=Singh|first2=S.|title=A beneficial aspect of nilgai (''Boselaphus tragocamelus'') in scientifically utilised ravines – an observation|journal=The Indian Forester|date=1994|volume=120|issue=10}}</ref>

==Note==

<references/>