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|didascalia=''Hyaena hyaena''
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La '''iena striata''' ('''''Hyaena hyaena''''') è una specie di [[Hyaena|iena]] originaria di [[Nordafrica|Africa settentrionale]] e [[Africa orientale|orientale]], [[Medio Oriente]], [[Caucaso]], [[Asia centrale]] e [[subcontinente indiano]]. Viene classificata dalla [[IUCN]] come [[Specie prossima alla minaccia|prossima alla minaccia]] (''Near Threatened''), in quanto la popolazione globale viene stimata a meno di 10.000 esemplari maturi che devono tuttora continuare a fronteggiare persecuzioni dirette e accidentali, nonché la sempre più grave diminuzione delle sue prede, tanto che si stima che la popolazione totale diminuirà del 10% nel corso delle prossime tre generazioni<ref name="iucn"/>.
È la più piccola delle [[Hyaena|vere iene]] e mantiene molte caratteristiche primitive proprie dei [[Viverridae|viverridi]] andate perdute nelle specie più grandi<ref name="k66"/>, come un cranio più piccolo e meno specializzato<ref name="r348"/><ref name="h16"/>. Sebbene sia prevalentemente una divoratrice di carogne, gli esemplari più grandi sono in grado di uccidere le proprie prede<ref name="m22"/>, e in rari casi sono stati registrati anche attacchi agli esseri umani<ref name="h46"/>. La iena striata è un animale [[Monogamia|monogamo]], e maschi e femmine si aiutano tra loro nell'allevamento dei piccoli<ref name="h40"/>. Animale notturno, la iena striata esce generalmente allo scoperto solo nella completa oscurità e si ritira velocemente nel proprio rifugio prima del sorgere del sole<ref name="h36"/>. Nonostante abbia l'abitudine di [[Tanatosi|fingersi morta]] quando viene attaccata, fronteggia coraggiosamente anche predatori di dimensioni maggiori nelle dispute per il cibo<ref name="p72"/>.
La iena striata è un soggetto predominante nel folklore mediorientale e asiatico. In alcune aree a certe parti del suo corpo vengono attribuiti poteri magici, e vengono pertanto utilizzate come [[Fattura (magia)|filtri]] o [[Amuleto|talismani]]<ref name="magic"/>. Viene inoltre citata nella [[Tanakh|Bibbia ebraica]], dove viene indicata come ''tzebua'' o ''zevoa'', nonostante sia assente in alcune [[traduzioni della Bibbia in italiano]]<ref name="BOTF"/>.
==Evolution==
The species may have evolved from ''H. namaquensis'' of [[Pliocene]] [[Africa]]. Striped hyena fossils are common in Africa, with records going back as far as the Middle [[Pleistocene]] and even to the Villafranchian. As fossil striped hyenas are absent from the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean region]], it is likely that the species is a relatively late invader to Eurasia, having likely spread outside Africa only after the extinction of [[spotted hyena]]s in Asia at the end of the [[last glacial period]]. The striped hyena occurred for some time in [[Europe]] during the Pleistocene, having been particularly widespread in [[France]] and [[Germany]]. It also occurred in [[Montmaurin]], [[Hollabrunn]] in [[Austria]], the Furninha Cave in [[Portugal]] and the Genista Caves in [[Gibraltar]]. The European form was similar in appearance to modern populations, but was larger, being comparable in size to the [[brown hyena]].<ref name="k66">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1968|pp=66–68}}</ref>
==Physical description==
===Build===
[[File:MSU V2P2 - Hyaena hyaena skull.png|thumb|Skull, as drawn by V. N. Lyakhov.]]
[[File:Animaldentition hyaenahyaena.png|150 px|left|thumb|Dentition, as illustrated in Knight's ''Sketches in Natural History'']]
[[File:Die vergleichende Osteologie (1821) Hyaena hyaena.jpg|150 px|thumb|Skeleton.]]
The striped hyena has a fairly massive, but short [[torso]] set on long legs. The hind legs are significantly shorter than the forelimbs, thus causing the back to slope downwards. The legs are relatively thin and weak, with the forelegs being bent at the [[carpal bones|carpal region]]. The neck is thick, long and largely immobile, while the head is heavy and massive with a shortened facial region. The eyes are small, while the sharply pointed ears are very large, broad and set high on the head. Like all hyenas, the striped hyena has bulky pads on its paws, as well as blunt but powerful claws. The tail is short and the [[terminal hair]]s do not descend below the [[achilles tendon]].<ref name="h11">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|pp=11–14}}</ref> The striped hyena lacks the enlarged clitoris and false scrotal sack noted in the [[female genitalia of the spotted hyena]].<ref name="h8">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|p=8}}</ref> The female has 3 pairs of [[nipple]]s.<ref name="p67">{{Harvnb|Pocock|1941|p=67}}</ref> Adult weight can range from {{convert|22|to|55|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, averaging at about {{convert|35|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. Body length can range from {{convert|85|to|130|cm|in|abbr=on}}, not counting a tail of {{convert|25|to|40|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and shoulder height is between {{convert|60|-|80|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="m21">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=21}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-striped_hyena.html Mammals: Striped Hyena]. San DIego Zoo</ref><ref>Boitani, Luigi, ''Simon & Schuster's Guide to Mammals''. Simon & Schuster/Touchstone Books (1984), ISBN 978-0-671-42805-1</ref><ref>Awad, Simon (February 2008). [http://www.thisweekinpalestine.com/details.php?id=2384&ed=150&edid=150 Myths and Facts about Hyenas]. thisweekinpalestine.com #118</ref> The male has a large pouch of naked skin located at the anal opening. Large anal glands open into it from above the [[anus]]. Several [[sebaceous gland]]s are present between the openings of the anal glands and above them.<ref name="p62">{{Harvnb|Pocock|1941|pp=62–63}}</ref> The anus can be everted up to a length of 5 cm, and is everted during social interaction and mating. When attacked, the striped hyena everts its rectum and sprays a pungent smelling liquid from its anal glands.<ref name="h38">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|p=38}}</ref> Its [[eyesight]] is acute, though its senses of [[Olfaction|smell]] and [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] are weak.<ref name="p73" />
The [[skull]] is entirely typical of the genus, having a very high [[sagittal crest]], a shortened facial region and an inflated [[frontal bone]].<ref name="h14">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|p=14}}</ref> The skull of the striped hyena differs from that of the brown<ref name="h16">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|p=16}}</ref> and spotted hyena by its smaller size and slightly less massive build. It is nonetheless still powerfully structured and well adapted to anchoring exceptionally strong jaw muscles<ref name="r348" /> which give it enough bite-force to splinter a [[camel]]'s thigh bone.<ref name="p73" /> Although the dentition is overall smaller than that of the spotted hyena, the upper molar of the striped hyena is far larger.<ref name="r348">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|p=348}}</ref> The [[dental formula]] is: {{dentition2|3.1.4.0-1|3.1.3.1}}
==
The winter coat is unusually long and uniform for an animal its size, with a luxuriant mane of tough, long hairs along the back from the [[occiput]] to the base of the tail. The coat is generally coarse and bristly, though this varies according to season. In winter, the coat is fairly dense, soft, and has well-developed underfur. The [[guard hair]]s are 50–75 mm long on the flanks, 150–225 mm long on the mane and 150 mm on the tail. In summer, the coat is much shorter and coarser, and lacks underfur, though the mane remains large.<ref name="h11"/>
In winter, the coat is usually of a dirty-brownish grey or dirty grey colour. The hairs of the mane are light grey or white at the base, and black or dark brown at the tips. The muzzle is dark, greyish brown, brownish-grey or black, while the top of the head and cheeks are more lightly coloured. The ears are almost black. A large black spot is present on the front of the neck, and is separated from the chin by a light zone. A dark field ascends from the flanks ascending to the rear of the cheeks. The inner and outer surface of the forelegs are covered with small dark spots and transverse stripes. The flanks have four indistinct dark vertical stripes and rows of diffused spots. The outer surface of the thighs has 3–4 distinct vertical or oblique dark bands which merge into transverse stripes in the lower portion of the legs. The tip of the tail is black with white underfur.<ref name="h11"/>
===Geographic variation===
It was proposed that there are five subspecies of the striped hyenas in Africa and Asia:
*'''Indian striped hyena''' ''H. h. hyaena'' ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]) – ([[Azerbaijan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[India]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]) – Extinct in [[Kazakhstan]] and [[China]]
*'''Barbary striped hyena''' ''H. h. barbara'' (de Blainville, 1844) – ([[Algeria]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Libya]], [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]] and [[Tunisia]])
*'''Sudanese striped hyena''' ''H. h. dubbah'' (Meyer, 1793) – ([[Egypt]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], Libya, [[Somalia]], [[South Sudan]], [[Sudan]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]])
*'''Arabian striped hyena''' ''H. h. sultana'' (Pocock, 1934) – ([[Oman]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Yemen]])
*'''Syrian striped hyena''' ''H. h. syriaca'' (Matschie, 1900) – (Iraq, [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Syria]] and Turkey)
{{As of|2005|uc=on}},<ref name="MSW3" /> no [[subspecies]] are recognised. The striped hyena is nonetheless a geographically varied animal. Hyenas in the Arabian peninsula have an accentuated blackish dorsal mane, with mid-dorsal hairs reaching 20 cm in length. The base colour of Arabian hyenas is grey to whitish grey, with dusky grey muzzles and buff yellow below the eyes. Hyenas in Israel have a dorsal crest which is mixed grey and black in colour, rather than being predominantly black.<ref name="m21"/> The largest striped hyenas come from the Middle East, Asia minor, central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, while those of east Africa and the Arabian peninsula are smaller.<ref name="m22">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=22}}</ref><ref name="o427">{{Harvnb|Osborn|Helmy|1980|p=427}}</ref>
==Behaviour==
[[File:Striped hyenas fighting.JPG|left|thumb|A pair of striped hyenas fighting at the [[Colchester Zoo]]]]
===Social and territorial behaviours===
The striped hyena is a primarily nocturnal animal, which typically only leaves its den at the onset of total darkness, returning before sunrise.<ref name="h36">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|pp=36–37}}</ref> Striped hyenas typically live in groups of 1–2 animals, though groups of up to seven animals are known in Libya. They are generally not territorial animals, with home ranges of different groups often overlapping each other. Home ranges in the Serengheti have been recorded to be {{convert|44|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}-{{convert|72|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}, while one in the [[Negev]] was calculated at {{convert|61|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}. When [[Scent marking|marking their territory]], striped hyenas use the paste of their anal pouch ([[hyena butter]]) to [[scent mark]] grass, stalks, stones, tree trunks and other objects. In aggressive encounters, the black patch near the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae is erected. When fighting, striped hyenas will bite at the throat and legs, but avoid the mane, which serves as a signalling device. When greeting each other, they lick the mid-back region, sniff each other's noses, extrude their anal pouch or paw each other's throats.<ref name="m24"/> The species is not as vocal as the spotted hyena, its vocalisations being limited to a chattering laugh and howling.<ref name="p73"/>
[[File:Winifred austen hyena.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration from Frank Finn's ''Wild Beasts of the World'' (1909)]]
===Reproduction and development===
The striped hyena is [[monogamy|monogamous]], with the male helping the female to establish a den, raise young and feed her when cubs are born. The [[Breeding season|mating season]] varies according to ___location; in Transcaucasia, hyenas breed in January–February, while those in southeast Turkmenia breed in October–November. In captivity, breeding is non-seasonal. [[Mating]] can occur at any time of the day, during which the male grips the skin of the female's neck.<ref name="h40">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|pp=40–42}}</ref>
The [[gestation period]] lasts 90–91 days. Striped hyena cubs are born with adult markings, closed eyes and small ears. This is in marked contrast to newborn spotted hyena cubs which are born almost fully developed, though with black, unmarked coats.<ref name="r350">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|p=350}}</ref> Their eyes open after 7–8 days, and the cubs leave their dens after one month. Cubs are weaned at the age of 2 months, and are then fed by both parents. Despite the males' assistance, female hyenas are very protective of their cubs, and will chase their mates away from the cubs if they approach too closely. By autumn, the cubs are half the size of their parents. In the wild, striped hyenas can live for 12 years, while in captivity they have been known to reach 23.<ref name="h40"/>
===Burrowing behaviours===
The striped hyena may dig its own dens, but it also establishes its lairs in caves, rock fissures, erosion channels and burrows formerly occupied by porcupines, wolves, warthogs and aardvarks. Hyena dens can be identified by the presence of bones at their entrances. The striped hyena hides in caves, niches, pits, dense thickets, reeds and plume grass during the day to shelter from predators, heat or winter cold. The size and elaboration of striped hyena dens varies according to ___location ; dens in the [[Karakum Desert|Karakum]] have entrances 0.67–0.72 m wide and are extended over a distance of 4.15–5 m, with no lateral extensions or special chambers. In contrast, hyena dens in Israel are much more elaborate and large, exceeding 27 m in length.<ref name="m24"/><ref name="h33">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|pp=33–36}}</ref>
===Diet===
[[File:Stripedhyenacrows.JPG|thumb|Stuffed striped hyena defending a sheep carcass from [[hooded crow]]s, as shown in [[Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences|The Museum of Zoology]], [[St. Petersburg]]]]
The striped hyena is primarily a scavenger which feeds mainly on [[ungulate]] carcasses in different stages of [[decomposition]], fresh bones, [[cartilage]]s, [[ligament]]s and [[bone marrow]]. It crushes long bones into fine particles and swallows them, though sometimes entire bones are eaten whole.<ref name="h31">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|pp=31–33}}</ref> The striped hyena is not a fussy eater, though it has an aversion to [[Old World vultures|vulture]] flesh.<ref name="r349">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|p=349}}</ref> It will occasionally attack and kill any animal it can overcome.<ref name="p72">{{Harvnb|Pocock|1941|p=72}}</ref> It hunts prey by running it down, grabbing its flanks or groin and inflicting mortal wounds by tearing out the [[viscera]].<ref name="h39">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|p=39}}</ref> In Turkmenistan, the species is recorded to feed on [[wild boar]], [[Mongolian wild ass|kulan]], [[porcupine]]s and [[tortoise]]s. A seasonal abundance of [[Elaeagnus|oil willow fruit]]s is an important food source in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan, while in the Caucasus, it is [[grasshopper]]s.<ref name="h31"/> In Israel, the striped hyena feeds on garbage, carrion and fruits. In eastern Jordan, its main sources of food are feral horse and water buffalo carcasses and village refuse. It has been suggested that only the large hyenas of the Middle East, Asia minor, central Asia and the Indian subcontinent attack large prey, with no evidence of their smaller Arabian and east African cousins doing so.<ref name="m22"/> Because of its scavenging diet, the striped hyena requires more water to survive than most other carnivores.<ref name="h31"/> When eating, the striped hyena gorges itself until satisfied, though hyenas with cubs will transport food to their dens.<ref name="r349"/> Because of the high content of [[calcium]] in its diet, the [[faeces]] of the striped hyena becomes white very rapidly, and can be visible from long distances.<ref name="h33"/>
===Relationships with other predators===
[[File:Rosevear spotted & striped hyena.png|thumb|Illustration of striped hyena (top) and spotted hyena (bottom)]]
The striped hyena competes with the [[gray wolf]] in the Middle East and central Asia. In the latter area, a great portion of the hyena's diet stems from wolf-killed carcasses. The striped hyena is dominant over the wolf on a one-to-one basis, though wolves in packs can displace single hyenas from carcasses.<ref name="m24">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|pp=24–25}}</ref> Both species have been known to share dens on occasion.<ref name="johnson">[[Daniel Johnson (surgeon)|Daniel Johnson]] (1827) ''[https://archive.org/stream/sketchesofindian00johnrich#page/46/mode/2up/search/hyena Sketches of Indian Field Sports: With Observations on the Animals; Also an Account of Some of the Customs of the Inhabitants; with a Description of the Art of Catching Serpents, as Practised by the Conjoors and Their Method of Curing Themselves when Bitten: with Remarks on Hydrophobia and Rabid Animals]'' p. 45-46, R. Jennings, 1827</ref> On rare occasions, Striped Hyenas are also known to travel with and live amongst wolf packs, with each doing the other no harm. Both predators may benefit from this unusual alliance, as the hyenas have better senses of smell and greater strength, and the wolves may be better at tracking large prey.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hogenboom |first=Melissa |url=http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160324-the-hyena-that-lives-with-wolves |title=Earth - The hyena that made its home in a wolf pack |publisher=BBC |date=2016-03-26 |accessdate=2017-01-03}}</ref> [[Red fox]]es may compete with striped hyenas on large carcasses. Red foxes may give way to hyenas on unopened carcasses, as the latter's stronger jaws can easily tear open flesh which is too tough for foxes. Foxes may harass hyenas, using their smaller size and greater speed to avoid the hyena's attacks. Sometimes, foxes seem to deliberately torment hyenas even when there is no food at stake. Some foxes may mistime their attacks, and are killed.<ref name="fox">Macdonald, David (1987) ''Running with the Fox'', p.77-79, Guild Publishing, London, ISBN 0-8160-1886-3</ref>
The species frequently scavenges from the kills of [[felid]]s such as [[tiger]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[cheetah]]s and [[caracal]]s. A caracal can drive a subadult hyena from a carcass. The hyena usually wins in one-to-one disputes over carcasses with leopards, cheetahs and tiger cubs, but is dominated by adult tigers.<ref name="p72"/><ref name="m24"/>
==Range and population==
[[File:Striped Hyena Adult.jpg| 250 px |thumb| left | A wild individual at [[Blackbuck National Park, Velavadar]]]]
The striped hyena's historical range encompasses [[Africa]] north of and including the [[Sahel]] zone, eastern Africa south into [[Tanzania]], the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and the [[Middle East]] up to the [[Mediterranean]] shores, [[Turkey]], [[Iraq]], the [[Caucasus]] ([[Azerbaijan]], [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]), [[Iran]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]] (excluding the higher areas of [[Hindukush]]) and the [[Indian Subcontinent]]. Today the species' distribution is patchy in most ranges, thus indicating that it occurs in many isolated populations, particularly in most of west Africa, most of the Sahara, parts of the Middle East, the Caucasus and central Asia. It does however have a continuous distribution over large areas of [[Ethiopia]], [[Kenya]], and Tanzania. Its modern distribution in [[Pakistan]], Iran and Afghanistan is unknown with some sizable large number in [[India]] in open areas of Deccan Peninsula.<ref name="m44">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=44}}</ref> During the recent Afghanistan conflict, periodic sightings were reported in Kandahar Province although not definitive.
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! Country
! Population
! Status
! Threats/Protection
|-
|[[Afghanistan]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=67}}</ref>
|[[Data deficient]]<ref name="m68">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|pp=68–71}}</ref>
|Striped hyenas are caught, either for [[hyena-baiting]] or for medicinal purposes<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Algeria]]
|50–100<ref name="m67"/>
|[[Threatened]]<ref name="m68"/>
|Although protected by décret no. 83-509, striped hyenas are declining in Algeria due to poaching, forest fires and the disturbing of den sites<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Burkina Faso]]
|100-1,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|Burkina Faso's striped hyena population is low but stable, with hunting only being permitted outside national parks and in retaliation to livestock losses<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Cameroon]]
|100-1,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|Cameroon's striped hyenas are afforded no protection or special attention<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Caucasus]] ([[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]])
|150–200<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Declining in all three countries due to hunting for fur and in retaliation to attacks on humans.Other factors include habitat loss, a reduction in large herbivore populations and changes in livestock management<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Chad]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Egypt]]
|1,000–2,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|Striped hyenas are offered no protection, and are hunted and poisoned as pests. There is also a reduced availability of animal carcasses for them to feed on<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], [[Eritrea]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|[[Lower risk]] in Ethiopia and data deficient in Eritrea, with no records in Djibouti<ref name="m68"/>
|Ethiopian hyenas are specially protected under Schedule 5 of the Wildlife Conservation Amendment Regulations (1974), though they may be hunted under special permit for EtBirr 40 (equivalent to US$20) for science, education or zoology<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[India]]
|1,000–3,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|Although India's hyenas are protected, this is given only within conservation areas, and the population is in decline due to poaching, competition with leopards over shelter and diminishing food stocks<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Iran]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|Striped hyenas are protected by law<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Iraq]]
|100-1,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Iraqi hyena populations are decreasing, though wildlife laws regulate their hunting<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Israel]]
|100–170<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Although hyenas have largely recovered from the strychnine poisoning campaigns of 1918–1948, and are protected by law, the current nature reserves housing them may be too small to ensure viable populations. Road accidents are their most serious threat<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Jordan]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Hyenas are actively hunted, as they are considered threats to human life<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Kenya]]
|1,000–2,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Lower risk<ref name="m68"/>
|Striped hyenas are likely to decrease in Kenya because of accelerated habitat destruction and poaching<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Kuwait]]
|0<ref name="m67"/>
|Probably [[extinct]]<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Lebanon]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Libya]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Mali]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Mauritiana]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Morocco]]
|50–500<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Though protected by law, the hyena population is in drastic decline, with the remaining individuals now having withdrawn to the southern mountains<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Nepal]]
|10–50<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|Although a small population of hyenas is confirmed, it is not considered a priority for protection by the government<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Niger]]
|100–500<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Declining due to officially sanctioned hunting and persecution campaigns, as well as habitat loss and overgrazing<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Nigeria]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Oman]]
|100-1,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Although not protected, striped hyenas are not officially persecuted, and are considered useful scavengers<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Pakistan]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Saudi Arabia]]
|100-1,000<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Though not officially persecuted, Arabian hyenas are not offered protection, and are severely poached<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Senegal]]
|50–100<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Somalia]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Sudan]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Syria]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Tajikistan]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Tanzania]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|Striped hyenas can be hunted, though they are not usually a target species. Road accidents are the most frequently recorded cause of mortality<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Tunisia]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Turkey]]
|Small isolated populations<ref name="iberianature.com">[http://iberianature.com/wildworld/guides/wildlife-and-nature-of-turkey/striped-hyena-in-turkey/ Striped hyena in Turkey]. Iberianature.com. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.</ref>
|Threatened<ref name="lcie.org">Ö. Emre Can, Yıldıray Lise [http://www.lcie.org/Docs/Regions/Turkey/EMRE_striped_hyaena_note.pdf Striped hyena (''Hyaena hyaena'') trapped in Hatay, Turkey]. WWF Turkey</ref><ref name="kasparek">{{cite journal|url=http://www.kasparek-verlag.de/PDFs/Striped%20Hyena%20Turkey.pdf |doi=10.1080/09397140.2004.10638068|title=On the status and distribution of the Striped Hyaena,Hyaena hyaena, in Turkey|year=2004|last1=Kasparek|first1=Max|last2=Kasparek|first2=Aygün|last3=Gözcelioğlu|first3=Bülent|last4=Çolak|first4=Ercüment|last5=Yiğit|first5=Nuri|journal=Zoology in the Middle East|volume=33|page=93}}</ref><ref>Özgün Emre Can (October 2004) [http://www.tigerforum.de/attachments/00000000001/lciTurkey.pdf Status, Conservation and Management of Large Carnivores in Turkey], WWF-Turkey, p. 11.</ref>
|
|-
|[[Turkmenistan]]
|100–500<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Declining from hunting, though listed in the Red Data Book of Turkmenia<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[United Arab Emirates]]
|0<ref name="m67"/>
|Probably extinct<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Uzbekistan]]
|25–100<ref name="m67"/>
|Threatened<ref name="m68"/>
|Striped hyena populations have declined over decades from active hunting and habitat loss, though they are listed in the Red Data Book of Uzbekistan and are protected<ref name="m68"/>
|-
|[[Western Sahara]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|-
|[[Yemen]]
|Unknown<ref name="m67"/>
|Data deficient<ref name="m68"/>
|
|}
==Relationships with humans==
===In folklore and mythology===
[[File:Hyaena pugmark.jpg|thumb|Striped hyena pugmark/track in wet clay. Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India]]
[[File:Hyenamosaic.jpg|thumb|A striped hyena, as depicted on the [[Nile mosaic of Palestrina]]]]
Striped hyenas are frequently referenced in Middle Eastern literature and folklore, typically as symbols of treachery and stupidity.<ref name="ABI">Mounir R. Abi-Said (2006) ''Reviled as a grave robber: The ecology and conservation of striped hyaenas in the human dominated landscapes of Lebanon'' Ph.D. thesis, University of Kent (Biodiversity management)</ref> In the Near and Middle East, striped hyenas are generally regarded as physical incarnations of [[jinn]]s.<ref name="magic">Frembgen, Jürgen W. ''[http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/publications/afs/pdf/a1246.pdf The Magicality of the Hyena: Beliefs and Practices in West and South Asia]'', Asian Folklore Studies, Volume 57, 1998: 331–344</ref> [[Zakariya al-Qazwini]] (1204–1283) wrote in [[Arabic]] of a tribe of people called "Hyena People". In his book ''Marvels of Creatures and the Strange Things Existing'' ({{lang|ar|عجائب المخلوقات وغرائب الموجودات}}), he wrote that should one of this tribe be in a group of 1000 people, a hyena could pick him out and eat him.<ref name="ABI" /> A [[Persian language|Persian]] medical treatise written in 1376 tells how to cure cannibalistic people known as ''kaftar'' who are said to be "half-man, half-hyena".<ref name="magic" /> Al-Doumairy in his writings in ''Hawayan Al-Koubra'' (1406) wrote that striped hyenas were [[vampire|vampiric creatures]] that attacked people at night and sucked the blood from their necks. He also wrote that hyenas only attacked brave people. Arab folklore tells of how hyenas can mesmerise victims with their eyes or sometimes with their [[pheromone]]s.<ref name="ABI" /> Until the end of the 19th century, the [[Greeks]] believed that the bodies of [[werewolf|werewolves]], if not destroyed, would haunt battlefields as vampiric hyenas which drank the blood of dying soldiers.<ref name="Woodward">{{cite book | author= Woodward, Ian | title=The Werewolf Delusion | year=1979 | page= 256 | isbn= 0-448-23170-0 }}</ref> The image of striped hyenas in Afghanistan, India and Palestine is more varied. Though feared, striped hyenas were also symbolic for love and fertility, leading to numerous varieties of love medicine derived from hyena body parts. Among the [[Baloch people]] and in [[North India]], witches or magicians are said to ride striped hyenas at night.<ref name="magic" />
The Arabic word for striped hyenas is alluded in a valley in Israel known as Shaqq al-Diba (meaning "cleft of the hyenas") and Wadi Abu Diba (meaning "valley of the hyenas"). Both places have been interpreted by some scholars as being the Biblical Valley of [[Zeboim (Hebrew Bible)|Zeboim]] mentioned in [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 13:18. The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for hyena is ''tzebua'' or ''zevoa'', which literally means "howling creature". Though the [[King James Version]] of the Bible interprets this word (which appears in the [[Book of Jeremiah]] 12:9) as referring to a "speckled bird", [[Henry Baker Tristram]] argued that it was most likely a hyena being mentioned.<ref name="BOTF">{{cite book | author= Bright, Michael | title=Beasts of the Field: The Revealing Natural History of Animals in the Bible | year=2006 | pages= 127–129| isbn=1-86105-831-4 }}</ref>
In [[Gnosticism]], the [[Archon]] Astaphaios is depicted with a hyena face.<ref>[http://gnosis.org/naghamm/apocjn.html The Apocryphon of John]. Gnosis.org. Retrieved on 2013-03-21.</ref>
[[File:Striped Hyena - Dahod, Gujarat.jpg|thumb|Striped Hyena feasting on Poultry Waste in Dahod, Gujarat, India]]
===Livestock and crop predation===
The striped hyena is sometimes implicated in the killing of [[livestock]], particularly [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], [[dog]]s and [[poultry]]. Larger stock is sometimes reportedly taken, though it is possible that these are cases of scavenging mistaken for actual predation. Although most attacks occur at low densities, a substantial number reputedly occur in Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Iraq, and possibly Morocco. In Turkmenistan, they kill dogs, while they kill dogs, sheep and other small animals in the Caucasus. Striped hyenas were recorded to kill [[horse]]s and [[donkey]]s in 1950s Iraq. Dogs, sheep and goats are occasionally at risk in Africa. Sheep and goats are also preyed upon in North Africa, Israel, Iran, Pakistan, and India, donkeys in North Africa, Israel, Iran, Pakistan, and India, horses in Iran and dogs in India.<ref name="m23">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|pp=23–24}}</ref>
Striped hyenas also cause damage on occasion to melon fields and to date palms in date plantations in Israel and Egypt, and to water and honey melon plantations in Turkmenistan.<ref name="m23"/>
===Attacks on humans and grave desecration===
[[File:Striped hyena shot.jpg|thumb|Engraving of a striped hyena attacking a man in ''The Naturalist's Cabinet'' (1806)]]
In ordinary circumstances, striped hyenas are extremely timid around humans, though they may show bold behaviours toward people at night.<ref name="h36"/> On rare occasions, striped hyenas have preyed on humans. In the 1880s, a hyena was reported to have attacked humans, especially sleeping children, over a three-year period in the [[Erivan Governorate]], with 25 children and 3 adults being wounded in one year. The attacks provoked local authorities into announcing a reward of 100 rubles for every hyena killed. Further attacks were reported later in some parts of Transcaucasia, particularly in 1908. Instances are known in Azerbaijan of striped hyenas killing children sleeping in courtyards during the 1930s and 1940s. In 1942, a guard sleeping in his hut was mauled by a hyena in Golyndzhakh. Cases of children being taken by hyenas by night are known in southeast Turkmenia's [[Bathyz Nature Reserve]]. A further attack on a child was reported around [[Serakhs]] in 1948.<ref name="h46">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|p=46}}</ref> Several attacks have occurred in India ; in 1962, nine children were thought to have been taken by hyenas in the town of [[Bhagalpur]] in the [[Bihar]] State in a six-week period<ref name="BOTF"/> and 19 children up to the age of four were killed by hyenas in [[Karnataka]], Bihar in 1974.<ref name="m25">{{Harvnb|Mills|Hofer|1998|p=25}}</ref> A census on wild animal attacks during a five-year period in the Indian state of [[Madhya Pradesh]] showed that hyenas had only attacked three people, the lowest figure when compared to deaths caused by [[Indian wolf|wolves]], [[gaur]], [[boar]], [[Asian elephant|elephants]], [[Bengal tiger|tigers]], [[Indian leopard|leopards]] and [[sloth bear]]s.<ref name="Attacks">{{cite book|url=http://www.nina.no/archive/nina/Publikasjoner/oppdragsmelding/NINA-OM731.pdf |format=PDF |title=The Fear of Wolves: A Review of Wolf Attacks on Humans |publisher=Norsk Institutt for Naturforskning |author=Linnel, J.D.C. |date=January 2002 |isbn=82-426-1292-7 |accessdate=2008-06-26 |display-authors=etal |deadurl=unfit |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050211205659/http://www.nina.no/archive/nina/Publikasjoner/oppdragsmelding/NINA-OM731.pdf |archivedate=February 11, 2005 }}</ref>
Though attacks on live humans are rare, striped hyenas will scavenge on human corpses. In Turkey, stones are placed on graves to stop hyenas digging the bodies out. In [[World War I]], the Turks imposed [[conscription]] (''safar barlek'') on mount Lebanon; people escaping from the conscription fled north, where many died and were subsequently eaten by hyenas.<ref name="ABI" />
===Hunting===
[[File:OudryHyena.jpg|thumb|left|''Hyena'' (1739) by [[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]]]]
[[File:Speared hyena.JPG|thumb|A striped hyena being speared in [[British India]], as illustrated in [[the Illustrated London News]]]]
Striped hyenas were hunted by Ancient Egyptian peasants for duty and amusement along with other animals that were a threat to crops and livestock.<ref name="o431">{{Harvnb|Osborn|Helmy|1980|p=431}}</ref> [[Algerian people|Algerian]] hunters historically considered the killing of striped hyenas as beneath their dignity, due to the animal's reputation for cowardice.<ref name="standard">Kingsley, John Sterling (1884) ''The Standard Natural History, Vol. V: Mammals'', Boston: S. E. Cassino and Co.</ref> A similar attitude was held by British sportsmen in [[British India]].<ref name="p72"/> Although striped hyenas are capable of quickly killing a dog with a single bite,<ref name="johnson"/> they usually [[Apparent death|feign death]] when escape from hunting dogs is impossible, and will remain in this state for long periods, even when badly bitten.<ref name="p73">{{Harvnb|Pocock|1941|p=73}}</ref> On some rare occasions, hyenas were ridden down and speared by men on horseback. Although hyenas were generally not fast enough to outrun horses, they had the habit of doubling and turning frequently during chases, thus ensuring long pursuits. Generally though, hyenas were hunted more as pests than sporting quarries; their scavenging damages skulls, skins and other articles from hunter's camps, which made them unpopular among sportsmen.<ref>Lydekker, Richard (1907), ''[http://ia311027.us.archive.org/2/items/gameanimalsofind00lyde/gameanimalsofind00lyde.pdf The game animals of India, Burma, Malaya, and Tibet]'', p. 354, London, R. Ward, limited</ref> In the [[Soviet Union]], hyena hunting was not specially organised. Most hyenas were caught incidentally in traps meant for other animals.<ref name="h45"/> Some hunters in southern [[Punjab region|Punjab]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Quetta]], catch striped hyenas to use them in [[hyena-baiting]]. The hyenas are pitted against specially trained dogs, and are restrained with ropes in order to pull them away from the dogs if necessary.<ref name="magic" /> In Kandahar, hunters locally called ''payloch'' (naked foot) hunt striped hyenas by entering their dens naked with a noose in hand. When the hyena is cornered at the end of its lair, the hunter murmurs the magic formula "turn into dust, turn into stone," which causes the animal to enter a hypnotic state of total submission, by which point the hunter can slip a noose over its forelegs and, finally, drag it out of the cave.<ref name="magic"/> A similar method was once practised by [[Mesopotamia]]n [[Arab people|Arab]] hunters, who would enter hyena dens and "flatter" the animal, which they believed could understand [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. The hunter would murmur "You are very nice and pretty and quite like a lion ; indeed, you are a lion". The hyena would then allow the hunter to place a noose around its neck and pose no resistance on being dragged out of its lair.<ref name="standard" />
The fur is coarse and sparse pelage, with the few skins sold by hunters often being marketed as poor quality dog or wolf fur. Hyena skins were however once used in preparing [[chamois leather]]. The selling price of hyena pelts in the Soviet Union ranged from 45 [[Ruble|kopeks]] to 1 ruble, 80 kopeks.<ref name="h45">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|1992|p=45}}</ref>
===Striped hyenas as food===
[[File:Hyena-forcefeed.jpg|thumb|An [[Ancient Egypt]]ian mural showing a striped hyena being forcefed]]
A mural depicted on [[Mereruka]]'s tomb in [[Sakkara]] indicates that [[Old Kingdom]] Egyptians [[force-feeding|forcefed]] hyenas in order to fatten them up for food, though certain scholars have argued that the depicted animals were really [[Aardwolf|aardwolves]]. Striped hyenas are still eaten by Egyptian peasants, Arabian [[Bedouin]]s, [[Palestinian people|Palestinian]] laborers, [[Sinai]] Bedouins, [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]]s,<ref name="o431"/> and in [[Somalia]],<ref>http://www.somalilandpress.com/islamists-authorise-hyena-meat-in-southern-somalia/</ref> and hyena meat is considered [[Halal]] in [[Islam]] by [[Muhammed]] hadith reported in book of Imaam [[At-Tirmithi]] from Abu 'Ammaar that he asked Jaabir "Is hyena considered as game?" He said, "Yes." He asked, "Can I eat it?" He said, "Yes." He asked, "Have you heard this from Allah's Messenger sallallaahu `alayhi wa sallam ( may Allaah exalt his mention )?" He said, "Yes." [Ahmad, At-Tirmithi].<ref>{{http://www.islamweb.net/emainpage/index.php?page=showfatwa&Option=FatwaId&Id=88523animals/|website=Eshaykh.com|accessdate=3 January 2017}}</ref> The Bedouins of Arabia, hyena meat is generally considered more as a medicine than as food.<ref name="magic" />
===Striped hyenas in folk magic===
The [[Ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] believed the blood, excrement, rectum, genitalia, eyes, tongue, hair, skin, and fat, as well as the ash of different parts of the striped hyena's body, were effective means to ward off evil and to ensure love and fertility. The Greeks and Romans believed that the genitalia of a hyena "would hold a couple peaceably together" and that a hyena anus worn as an amulet on the upper arm would make its male possessor irresistible to women. In West and South Asia, hyena body parts apparently play an important role in [[love magic]] and in the making of amulets. In Iranian folklore, it is mentioned that a stone found in the hyenas body can serve as a charm of protection for whoever wears it on his upper arm. In the Pakistani province of [[Sindh]], the local Muslims place the tooth of a striped hyena over churns in order not to lose the milk's ''[[Luck|baraka]]''. In Iran, a dried striped hyena pelt is considered a potent charm which forces all to succumb to the possessors attraction. In Afghanistan and Pakistan striped hyena hair is used either in love magic or as a charm in sickness. Hyena blood has been held in high regard in northern India as potent medicine, and the eating of the tongue helps fight [[tumor]]s. In the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|Khyber]] area, burned striped hyena [[fat]] is applied to a man's genitals or sometimes taken orally to ensure virility, while in India the fat serves as a cure for [[rheumatism]]. In Afghanistan, some [[mullah]]s wear the vulva (''kus'') of a female striped hyena wrapped in silk under their armpits for a week. If a man peers through the vulva at the woman of his desire, he will invariably get hold of her. This has led to the proverbial expression in [[Dari (Persian)|Dari]] of ''kus-e kaftar bay'', as well as in [[Pashto language|Pashto]] of ''kus-e kaftar'' which literally mean "it happens as smoothly as if you would look through the vulva of a female striped hyena". In the [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]] and [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Baluchistan]], the [[Pakhtun]] keep the vulva in [[vermilion]] powder, itself having aphrodesic connotations. The rectum of a freshly killed striped hyena is likewise used by [[homosexual]]s and [[bisexual]]s to attract young men. This has led to the expression "to possess the anus of a [striped] hyena" which denotes somebody who is attractive and has many lovers. A striped hyena's penis kept in a small box filled with vermilion powder can be used for the same reasons.<ref name="magic" />
===Tameability===
The striped hyena is easily tamed and can be fully trained, particularly when young. Although the Ancient Egyptians did not consider striped hyenas sacred, they supposedly tamed them for use in hunting. When raised with a firm hand, they may eventually become affectionate and as amenable as well trained dogs,<ref name="o431"/><ref name="r351">{{Harvnb|Rosevear|1974|pp=351–352}}</ref> though they emit a strong odour which no amount of bathing will cover.<ref>Smith, A. Mervyn (1904), ''[http://ia340902.us.archive.org/3/items/sportadventurein00smitrich/sportadventurein00smitrich.pdf Sport and adventure in the Indian jungle]'', p. 292, London : Hurst and Blackett</ref> Although they kill dogs in the wild, striped hyenas raised in captivity can form bonds with them.<ref name="p73" />
== Note ==
| |||