Hippocampal memory encoding and retrieval: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 21:48, 27 November 2018

Revision as of 20:55, 10 February 2019

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===HIPER (hippocampal encoding/retrieval) model===

Meta-[[positron emission tomography]] (PET) analysis has lent support toward a division of the hippocampus between caudal and rostral regions.<ref name=b>{{cite journal | last1 = Lepage | first1 = M. | last2 = Habib | first2 = R. | last3 = Tulving | first3 = E. | year = 1998 | title = Lepage, M., Habib, R. & Tulving, E. Hippocampal PET Activations of memory encoding and retrieval: the HIPER model" ''Hippocampus'' 8, 313-322 | url = | journal = Hippocampus | volume = 8 | issue = 4| pages = 313–22 | doi = 10.1002/(SICI)1098-1063(1998)8:4<313::AID-HIPO1>3.0.CO;2-1 | pmid = 9744418 | doi-broken-date = 2019-02-10 }}</ref> Scans have demonstrated a uniform variation in blood flow distribution within the hippocampus (and the medial temporal lobe broadly) during the separate processes of episodic encoding and retrieval.<ref name=b /> In the hippocampal encoding/retrieval (HIPER) model, episodic encoding is found to take place within the rostral region of the hippocampus whereas retrieval takes place in the caudal region.<ref name=b /> However, the divide between these regions need not be disjoint, as [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) data has demonstrated encoding processes occurring within the caudal region.<ref name=b />

HIPER is a model resulting from and therefore a reflection of certain experimental phenomena, but cannot completely explain hippocampal encoding and retrieval on its own.<ref name=b /> Nevertheless, the model suggests a broad division of labor in encoding and retrieval, whether they involve separate regions of the hippocampus or act simultaneously or independently within a single, more inclusive process.

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===Theta phase separation===

In a framework first developed by Hasselmo and colleagues, theta phase separation implies that the theta rhythm of the hippocampus occurs in cycles and various phases of the rhythm entail encoding and retrieval as separate processes.<ref name=c>{{cite journal | last1 = Hasselmo | first1 = ME | last2 = Bodelon | first2 = C | last3 = Wyble | first3 = BP | year = 2002 | title = A proposed function for hippocampal theta rhythm: separate phases of encoding and retrieval enhance reversal of prior learning | url = | journal = Neural Computation | volume = 14 | issue = 4| pages = 793-817793–817 | doi = 10.1162/089976602317318965 }}</ref><ref name=m>{{cite journal | last1 = Kunec | first1 = S | last2 = Hasselmo | first2=ME | last3 = Kopell | first3 = N | year = 2005 | title = Encoding and Retrieval in the CA3 Region of the Hippocampus: A Model of Theta-Phase Separation | url = | journal = Journal of Neurophysiology | volume = 94 | issue = 1| pages = 70–82 | doi = 10.1152/jn.00731.2004 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.333.5452 }}</ref> An extra-hippocampal structure, the septum, initiates and regulates the theta rhythm and its associated memory processes. GABAergic activity within the septum inhibits certain classes of CA3 cells (a region of the hippocampus), the divide often drawn between basket cells, pyramidal cells, and interneurons, to distinguish encoding from retrieval mechanisms. The study emphasizes and models the CA3 subfield of the hippocampus as a primary inducement towards encoding and retrieval. Encoding as a procedure begins when septal GABAergic inhibition is at minimum, freeing basket cells to act within CA3, and during brief dis-inhibition periods, other cells receive input: a proximal entorhinal input toward pyramidal cells and a coincident dentate gyrus input toward interneurons.<ref name=c /><ref name=m /> On the other hand, retrieval as a procedure begins when septal GABAergic inhibition is at maximum, occluding basket cell activity and enabling pyramidal cells to signal.<ref name=c /> During this period, Oriens- Lacunosum Moleculare (O-LM) cells disambiguate memory for retrieval.<ref name=m />

CA3 is significant as it is allows auto-associative processes through a recurrent, collateral system.<ref name=c /> The theta phase separation model agrees generally with others on the significance of CA3 but is the first to attribute both the processes of encoding and retrieval to the subfield.<ref name=c /><ref name=m />

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===Psychiatric disorders===

Individuals who develop hippocampal lesions often fare poorly on measures of verbal declarative memory. Tests involving the recall of paragraphs or strings of words, as cited by Bremner and colleagues, illustrate a degree of dysfunction among lesion patients proportionate to the percentage of hippocampal volume and the amount of cells lost.<ref name=f>{{cite journal | last1 = Bremner | first1 = J. | last2 = Vythilingam | first2 = M. | last3 = Vermetten | first3 = E. | last4 = Southwick | first4 = S. | last5 = MaGlashan | first5 = T. | last6 = Nazeer | first6 = A. | last7 = Khan | first7 = S. | last8 = Vaccarino | first8 = V. | last9 = Soufer | first9 = R. | last10 = Garg | first10 = P. | last11 = Chin | first11 = K. | last12 = Staib | first12 = L. | last13 = Duncan | first13 = J. | last14 = Charney | first14 = D. | year = 2003 | title = MRI and PET study of deficits in hippocampal structure and function in women with childhood sexual abuse and posttraumatic stress disorder | url = | journal = The American Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 160 | issue = 5| pages = 924–932 | doi=10.1176/appi.ajp.160.5.924 | pmid=12727697}}</ref>

As precursors toward later studies that would showcase the effect of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) on the human hippocampus, animal studies have broadly demonstrated a susceptibility of the mammalian hippocampus to stressors. In particular, stressed animals develop functional deficits in memory, changes in hippocampal form, and an impairment in neurogenesis, or the ability to produce new neurons.<ref name=f />

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===Disease===

According to the ''Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry'', [[Alzheimer's]] generally causes a reduction in tissue as well as neurodegeneration throughout the brain. Out of all areas in the brain, the hippocampus is among the first to be damaged by Alzheimer's. One study located in the Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry tested to see the volume changes of the hippocampus in Alzheimer's disease patients. Results showed that there was 27% less volume in the hippocampus compared with the hippocampus found in normal cognition. Lastly, the difference between the hippocampus of an Alzheimer's patient and that of a normal patient was shown through the notable loss seen in cortical grey matter in Alzheimer's.<ref name=i>{{cite journal | last1 = Du | first1 = A. | last2 = Schuff | first2 = N. | last3 = Amend | first3 = D. | last4 = Laakso | first4 = M. | last5 = Hsu | first5 = Y. | last6 = Jagust | first6 = W. | last7 = Yaffe | first7 = K. | last8 = Kramer | first8 = J. | last9 = Reed | first9 = B. | last10 = Norman | first10 = D. | last11 = Chui | first11 = H. | last12 = Weiner | first12 = M. | year = 2001 | title = Magnetic resonance imaging of the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus in mild cognitive impairment and alzheimer's disease | url = | journal = Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry | volume = 71 | issue = 4| pages = 441–447 | doi=10.1136/jnnp.71.4.441| pmid = 11561025 | pmc = 1763497 }}</ref>

==Experiment==