Encoding specificity principle: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 16:33, 17 October 2019

Revision as of 20:06, 7 December 2019

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====Physical environment====

The ___location and environment in which you learn something readily affects how you can freely recall it.<ref name="underwater study">{{cite journal|last=Godden|first=D.R.|author2=A.D. Baddely|title=Context-Dependent Memory in Two Natural Environments: On Land and Underwater|journal=The British Journal of Psychology|year=1975|volume=66|issue=3|pages=325–331|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1975.tb01468.x}}</ref> In a famous experiment by Godden and Baddeley presentedin lists1975 researchers took two groups of individuals and asked them to study and remember a list of given words. One group was given a list of words to participantsstudy bothwhile underwater andin onscuba gear, the beachother was given the same list on dry land. When asked to recall wasthe information the participants remembered the list of words better when tested in the environment ofwhere originalthe encodinglist freewas recallstudied. wasThis farexperiment superiorillustrates comparedhow torecreating recallthe whenphysical testedenvironment of encoding can aid in anthe alteredretrieval environmentprocess.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/885178247|title=Cognitive psychology : connecting mind, research and everyday experience|last=Goldstein, E. Bruce, 1941-|date=2015|publisher=Cengage learning|isbn=1-285-76388-2|edition=4th edition|___location=New york|oclc=885178247}}</ref>

The type of environment itself did not matter, just that the environment was constant during encoding and recall, as the effect on recall of the environment of recall depends on the environment of original learning.<ref name="underwater 2">{{cite journal|last=Godden|first=Duncan|author2=Alan Baddely|title=When Does Context Influence Recognition Memory?|journal=The British Journal of Psychology|year=1980|volume=71|pages=99–104|doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1980.tb02735.x}}</ref> Memory tested through recognition, however, was not affected. This phenomenon is explained by what is termed the [[Context-dependent memory|outshining hypothesis]]: context can be a useful cue for memory but only when it is needed. One will only turn to context as a cue when better cues are unavailable. In recognition tests, cues other than the immediate encoding context and environment are superior, whereas in free-recall tests, the immediate environment serves as the only cue to trigger memory.<ref name="underwater 2" />

====Auditory environment====

The level and kind of noise in any given encoding environment will affect the ability to recall the information encoded in a different auditory environment.<ref name="Music auditory">{{cite journal|last=Grant|first=Harry|author2=Lane C. Bredahl |author3=John Clay |author4=Jennifer Ferrie |author5=Jane Groves |author6=Timothy McDorman |author7=Veronica Dark |title=Context-dependent memory for meaningful material: Information for students|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|year=1998|volume=12|issue=6|pages=617–623|doi=10.1002/(sici)1099-0720(1998120)12:6<617::aid-acp542>3.0.co;2-5|citeseerx=10.1.1.497.6500}}</ref> StudentsGrant, receiveet. higheral. scores(1998) onperformed testsa whenstudy theyto studytest forhow the auditory environment during encoding and takethe examinationsauditory inenvironment environmentsduring thattesting haveeffected similarrecall auditoryand backgroundrecognition distractions,during thusa provingtest. thatIn the context-dependencystudy 39 participants effectwere appliesasked to meaningfulread scenariosthrough inan additionarticle toone unrelatedtime, wordknowing lists.that Whilethey would take a typicalshort collegetest student'son studythe environmentmaterial. Each of the participants wore headphones while reading but some of the participants heard oftenmoderately includesloud background noise and others heard nothing. They found that regardless of the type of test, it is more beneficial to study and test environmentsin arethe typicallysame quieterauditory environment.<ref name="Music auditory" /> In line with the encoding specificity principle, this mismatch at encoding and retrieval is detrimental to test performance.<ref name=Textbook>{{cite book|last=Robinson-Riegler|first=Bridget|title=Cognitive Psychology: Applying the Science of the mind|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Publishing|___location=Boston, MA|isbn=978-0-205-03364-5|pages=246–248}}</ref> Students who study with background noise recall just as much information as students studying in silence, provided they are tested in the same type of environment as which the information was encoded.<ref name="Music auditory" />

===='''Language and the voluntary retrieval of autobiographical memories===='''

====Language and the voluntary retrieval of autobiographical memories====

[[Autobiographical memory|Autobiographical memories]] are more accessible when the language at encoding and recall match.<ref name="Autobiographical memory">{{cite journal|last=Marian|first=Viorica|author2=Ulric Neisser|title=Language Dependent recall of autobiographical memories|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|year=2000|volume=129|issue=3|pages=361–368|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.129.3.361 }}</ref> Researchers conducted interviews with Russian and English speaking bilingual students in both languages and asked participants to retrieve the first memory that comes to mind when hearing a generic word in either language. They found that when presented with Russian-language cues, participants recalled memories that occurred in a Russian-speaking environment and when presented with English-language cues, they easily recalled memories from English-speaking contexts.<ref name="Autobiographical memory" /> This is first because the cue words may have been spoken during the original event that the participant was remembering; hearing the word at encoding and again at retrieval may have been a sufficient cue to bring the memory to mind. Second, this phenomenon may be due to the general language-created ambiance of the situation in which participants were tested rather than the specific associations to individual cue words.<ref name="Autobiographical memory" />

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====Alcohol====

Information encoded and stored while intoxicated, see [[state-dependent memory]], is retrieved more effectively when an individual is intoxicated as compared to being sober. State-dependent memory is one example of encoding specificity. If an individual encodes information while intoxicated he or she, ideally, should match that state when attempting to recall the encoded information. This type of state-dependent effect is strongest with free recall rather than when strong retrieval cues are present.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Eich|first=James Eric|date=1980-03|title=The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/bf03213419|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=8|issue=2|pages=157–173|doi=10.3758/bf03213419|issn=0090-502X}}</ref>

Information encoded and stored while intoxicated is retrieved more effectively when later recall tests are performed while intoxicated as compared to recall while sober.<ref name=alcohol>{{cite journal|last=Weingartner|first=Herbert|author2=Wolansa Adefras |author3=James E. Eich |author4=Dennis L. Murphy |title=Encoding-imagery specificity in alcohol state-dependent learning|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory|year=1976|volume=2|issue=1|pages=83–87|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.2.1.83}}</ref> This finding is a variation of the context-dependency effect of the encoding specificity principle and is much more apparent with low-imagery words than high-imagery words. Both high and low imagery words, however, are less likely to be recalled while intoxicated due to the inherent nature of intoxication.<ref name=alcohol />

This finding is a variation of the context-dependency effect of the encoding specificity principle and is much more apparent with low-imagery words than high-imagery words. Both high and low imagery words, however, are less likely to be recalled while intoxicated due to the inherent nature of intoxication.<ref name="alcohol">{{cite journal|last=Weingartner|first=Herbert|author2=Wolansa Adefras|author3=James E. Eich|author4=Dennis L. Murphy|year=1976|title=Encoding-imagery specificity in alcohol state-dependent learning|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory|volume=2|issue=1|pages=83–87|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.2.1.83}}</ref>

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==== Studying ====

The encoding specificity principle has an implication for studying; as the recall of information is aided by the context of encoding the information, suggesting one should study in a similar context to the exam. ContextThe inway studyingan canindividual meanstudies theshould physical environment,match the typeway ofhe activityor usedshe to study and audiois environmenttested.  StudyingIf informationyou inare atested manneron thatapplication isof closestprinciples to thenew methodexamples ofyou assessmentshould ispractice theby optimalapplying methodprinciples ofduring studyingthe duestudy tosession. itWhen aidingstudents recall ofknow the informationrequirements infor a similartest contextor tothe thatperformance oftask thethey assessment.can For example,better practisingencode the typeinformation ofwhile taskstudying thatand willcan beperform askedat ona thehigher examlevel aswhen a mode of studyingtested.<ref>{{Cite book|url=httpshttp://catalog.hathitrustworldcat.org/Recordoclc/011424237967611520|title=The value of taking notes during lectures / Thomas HStudying. Anderson,Technical BonnieReport BNo. Armbruster155.|last=Anderson|first=, Thomas H.|last2oclc=Armbruster|first2=Bonnie967611520}}</ref> B.|last3=NationalStudying Instituteinformation ofin Educationa (U.S.)|last4=Bolt|first4=Beranek,manner andthat Newman,is inc.|last5=Universityclosest ofto Illinoisthe at Urbana-Champaign.|date=1986|publisher=Universitymethod of Illinoisassessment atis Urbana-Champaignthe ;optimal Boltmethod Beranekof andstudying Newmandue Inc.|series=Technicalto reportit ;no.aiding 374|___location=Champaign, Ill. : Cambridge, Mass.}}</ref> One study on different methodsrecall of studying showed that the students who read and took notesinformation in outlinea formsimilar didcontext theto highestthat onof the outliningassessment. section of a test.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mathews|first=C. O.|date=1938|title=Comparison of methods of study for immediate and delayed recall.|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|volume=29|issue=2|pages=101–106|doi=10.1037/h0055182|issn=0022-0663}}</ref>

==Criticism==