Computer-assisted language learning: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 19:37, 17 October 2019

Revision as of 23:31, 13 November 2019

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Examples of CALL programs for multimedia computers that were published on CD-ROM and DVD from the mid-1990s onwards are described by Davies (2010: Section 3).<ref name=daviesmodmm/> CALL programs are still being published on CD-ROM and DVD, but Web-based multimedia CALL has now virtually supplanted these media.

Following the arrival of multimedia CALL, multimedia language centres began to appear in educational institutions. While multimedia facilities offer many opportunities for language learning with the integration of text, images, sound and video, these opportunities have often not been fully utilised. One of the main promises of CALL is the ability to individualise learning but, as with the language labs that were introduced into educational institutions in the 1960s and 1970s, the use of the facilities of multimedia centres has often devolved into rows of students all doing the same drills (Davies 2010: Section 3.1).<ref name=daviesmodmm/> There is therefore a danger that multimedia centres may go the same way as the language labs. Following a boom period in the 1970s, language labs went rapidly into decline. Davies (1997: p.&nbsp;28) lays the blame mainly on the failure to train teachers to use language labs, both in terms of operation and in terms of developing new methodologies, but there were other factors such as poor reliability, lack of materials and a lack of good ideas.<ref name=davieslessons>Davies G. (1997) "Lessons from the past, lessons for the future: 20 years of CALL". In Korsvold A-K. & Rüschoff B. (eds.) ''New technologies in language learning and teaching'', Strasbourg: Council of Europe, p. 28. Also on the Web in a revised edition (2009): http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/coegdd1.htm/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116042609/http://www.camsoftpartners.co.uk/coegdd1.htm |date=16 November 2010 }}</ref>

Managing a multimedia language centre requires not only staff who have a knowledge of foreign languages and language teaching methodology but also staff with technical know-how and budget management ability, as well as the ability to combine all these into creative ways of taking advantage of what the technology can offer. A centre manager usually needs assistants for technical support, for managing resources and even the tutoring of students. Multimedia centres lend themselves to self-study and potentially self-directed learning, but this is often misunderstood. The simple existence of a multimedia centre does not automatically lead to students learning independently. Significant investment of time is essential for materials development and creating an atmosphere conducive to self-study. Unfortunately, administrators often have the mistaken belief that buying hardware by itself will meet the needs of the centre, allocating 90% of its budget to hardware and virtually ignoring software and staff training needs (Davies et al. 2011: ''Foreword'').<ref name=daviesmmlc>Davies G., Hamilton R., Weidmann B., Gabel S., Legenhausen L., Meus V. & Myers S. (2011) Managing a multimedia language centre. Module 3.1 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod3-1.htm</ref> [[Self access language learning centers|Self-access language learning centres]] or independent learning centres have emerged partially independently and partially in response to these issues. In self-access learning, the focus is on developing learner autonomy through varying degrees of self-directed learning, as opposed to (or as a complement to) classroom learning. In many centres learners access materials and manage their learning independently, but they also have access to staff for help. Many self-access centres are heavy users of technology and an increasing number of them are now offering online self-access learning opportunities. Some centres have developed novel ways of supporting language learning outside the context of the language classroom (also called 'language support') by developing software to monitor students' self-directed learning and by offering online support from teachers. Centre managers and support staff may need to have new roles defined for them to support students’ efforts at self-directed learning: v. Mozzon-McPherson & Vismans (2001), who refer to a new job description, namely that of the "language adviser".<ref>Mozzon-McPherson M. & Vismans R. (eds.) (2001) ''Beyond language teaching towards language advising'', London: CILT.</ref>

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Underwood (1989)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underwood | first1 = J | year = 1989 | title = On the edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s | url = | journal = Computers and the Humanities | volume = 23 | issue = | pages = 71–84 | doi=10.1007/bf00058770}}</ref> and Heift & Schulze (2007)<ref>Heift T. & Schulze M. (eds.) (2007) ''Errors and intelligence in CALL: parsers and pedagogues'', New York: Routledge.</ref> present a more positive picture of AI.

Research into speech synthesis, speech recognition and parsing and how these areas of NLP can be used in CALL are the main focus of the NLP Special Interest Group<ref>EUROCALL NLP Special Interest Group: http://siglp.eurocall-languages.org/</ref> within the [[European Association for Computer-Assisted Language Learning|EUROCALL]] professional association and the ICALL Special Interest Group<ref>CALICO ICALL Special Interest Group: http://purl.org/calico/icall{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> within the [[CALICO (consortium)|CALICO]] professional association. The EUROCALL NLP SIG also maintains a Ning.<ref>EUROCALL NLP Special Interest Group Ning: http://nlpsig.ning.com/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184147/http://nlpsig.ning.com/ |date=14 July 2011 }}</ref>

==Impact==

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A crucial issue is the extent to which the computer is perceived as taking over the teacher's role. Warschauer (1996: p.&nbsp;6) perceived the computer as playing an "intelligent" role, and claimed that a computer program "should ideally be able to understand a user's spoken input and evaluate it not just for correctness but also for appropriateness. It should be able to diagnose a student's problems with pronunciation, syntax, or usage and then intelligently decide among a range of options (e.g. repeating, paraphrasing, slowing down, correcting, or directing the student to background explanations)."<ref name=warschauer96/> Jones C. (1986), on the other hand, rejected the idea of the computer being "some kind of inferior teacher-substitute" and proposed a methodology that focused more on what teachers could do with computer programs rather than what computer programs could do on their own: "in other words, treating the computer as they would any other classroom aid".<ref name=jones86>{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = C | year = 1986 | title = It's not so much the program: more what you do with it: the importance of methodology in CALL | url = | journal = System | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 171–178 | doi=10.1016/0346-251x(86)90006-0}}</ref> Warschauer's high expectations in 1996 have still not been fulfilled, and currently there is an increasing tendency for teachers to go down the route proposed by Jones, making use of a variety of new tools such as [[#Corpora and concordancers|corpora and concordancers]], interactive whiteboards<ref name= schmidcutrim2009/> and applications for online communication.<ref name= lamyhampel/>

Since the advent of the Web there has been an explosion in online learning, but to what extent it is effective is open to criticism. Felix (2003) takes a critical look at popular myths attached to online learning from three perspectives, namely administrators, teachers and students. She concludes: "That costs can be saved in this ambitious enterprise is clearly a myth, as are expectations of saving time or replacing staff with machines."<ref>Felix U. (2003) "Teaching languages online: deconstructing the myths", ''Australian Journal of Educational Technology'' 19, 1: 118-138 [Online]: http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/felix.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314045708/http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/felix.html |date=14 March 2011 }}</ref>

As for the effectiveness of CALL in promoting the four skills, Felix (2008) claims that there is "enough data in CALL to suggest positive effects on spelling, reading and writing", but more research is needed in order to determine its effectiveness in other areas, especially speaking online. She claims that students' perceptions of CALL are positive, but she qualifies this claim by stating that the technologies need to be stable and well supported, drawing attention to concerns that technical problems may interfere with the learning process. She also points out that older students may not feel comfortable with computers and younger students may not possess the necessary metaskills for coping effectively in the challenging new environments. Training in computer literacy for both students and teachers is essential, and time constraints may pose additional problems. In order to achieve meaningful results she recommends "time-series analysis in which the same group of students is involved in experimental and control treatment for a certain amount of time and then switched – more than once if possible".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Felix | first1 = U | year = 2008 | title = The unreasonable effectiveness of CALL: what have we learned in two decades of research? | url = | journal = ReCALL | volume = 20 | issue = 2| pages = 141–161 | doi=10.1017/s0958344008000323}}</ref>

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Types of technology training in CALL for language teaching professionals certainly vary. Within second language teacher education programs, namely pre-service course work, we can find "online courses along with face-to-face courses", computer technology incorporated into a more general second language education course, "technology workshops","a series of courses offered throughout the teacher education programs, and even courses specifically designed for a CALL certificate and a CALL graduate degree"<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hong | first1 = K. H. | year = 2010 | title = CALL teacher education as an impetus for 12 teachers in integrating technology | url = | journal = ReCALL | volume = 22 | issue = 1| pages = 53–69 | doi = 10.1017/s095834400999019X }}</ref> The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has identified four levels of courses with only components, namely "web-supplemented, web-dependent, mixed mod and fully online".<ref>Murray, D. E. (2013) A Case for Online English Language Teacher Education. The International Research Foundation for English Language Education. http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/TIRF_OLTE_One-PageSpread_2013.pdf</ref>

There is a rapidly growing interest in resources about the use of technology to deliver CALL. Journals that have issues that "deal with how teacher education programs help prepare language teachers to use technology in their own classrooms" include ''Language Learning and Technology'' (2002), ''Innovations in Language Learning and Teaching'' (2009) and the TESOL international professional association's publication of technology standards for TESOL includes a chapter on preparation of teacher candidates in technology use, as well as the upgrading of teacher educators to be able to provide such instruction. Both CALICO and EUROCALL have special interest groups for teacher education in CALL.<ref>Murray, D. E. (2013) A Case for Online English Language Teacher Education. The International Research Foundation for English Language Education. http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/TIRF_OLTE_One-PageSpread_2013{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Professional associations==