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'''Ensemble coding''', also known as ensemble perception or summary representation, is the ability to see the average or variance of a group of objects. It is a theory that suggests that people process the general gist of their complex visual surroundings by grouping objects together based on shared properties. It has been demonstrated that individuals have the ability quickly and accurately encode ensembles and gather summary statistical information (like the mean and variance) from groups of stimuli.<ref>{{Citecite journal|last vauthors = Alt|first=Nicholas P.|last2=NP, Goodale|first2=Brianna|last3= B, Lick|first3=David J.|last4=DJ, Johnson|first4=Kerri L.KL |date= March 2019-03 |title=Threat in the Company of Men: Ensemble Perception and Threat Evaluations of Groups Varying in Sex Ratio|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1948550617731498|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|pages=152–159|doi=10.1177/1948550617731498|issn=1948-5506}}</ref><ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Alvarez GA |first=George|date=2011-03| title = Representing Multiplemultiple Objectsobjects as an Ensembleensemble Enhancesenhances Visualvisual cognition Cognition|url language =https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41364280 en-US | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences |language volume =en-US 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 122–31 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21292539 | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.003 |issn url =1364-6613 https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41364280 }}</ref> The world is filled with redundant information of which our visual systems have become particularly sensitive to.<ref name=":0" /><ref>Whitney D, Haberman J, Sweeny T. 2014. From textures to crowds: multiple levels of summary statistical
perception. In The New Visual Neuroscience, ed. JS Werner, LM Chalupa, pp. 695–710. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press</ref> Ensemble coding is an adaptive process that lightens cognitive effort in processing and storing visual representations through the use of heuristics.<ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Haberman|first=Jason|last2= J, Whitney D |first2=David|date=2009-6| title = Seeing the mean: Ensembleensemble coding for sets of faces |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2696629/| journal = Journal of experimentalExperimental psychologyPsychology. Human perceptionPerception and performancePerformance | volume = 35 | issue = 3 | pages =718–734 718–34 |doi date =10.1037/a0013899 June 2009 |issn pmid =0096-1523 19485687 | pmc = 2696629 |pmid doi =19485687 10.1037/a0013899 }}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Citecite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Kw9pAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA339&dq=haberman+&+whitney+2012&ots=a9dpYnaYBx&sig=s3mlaaflNeznaAM6tD75cmUIGpM#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=From Perception to Consciousness: Searching with Anne Treisman |last=Wolfe |first=Jeremy |last2=Robertson |first2=Lynn | name-list-format = vanc |date=2011-12-29|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-990984-1|language=en}}</ref>
== Ensemble Coding Defined ==
David Whitney and Allison Yamanashi Lieb developed an operational and flexible definition stating that, “...ensemble coding should include the following five concepts:
* Ensemble information at each level of representation can be precise relative to the processing of single objects at that level.
* Single-item recognition is not a prerequisite for ensemble coding.
* Ensemble representations can be extracted with a temporal resolution at or beyond the temporal resolution of individual object recognition.” <ref name=":0">{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Whitney|first=David|last2= D, Yamanashi Leib A |first2=Allison|date=2018| title = Ensemble Perception |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044232| journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 69 | issue = 1 | pages = 105–129 | date = January 2018 | pmid = 28892638 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044232|pmid=28892638 }}</ref>
== Opposing theories ==
=== Limited visual capacity ===
Vision science has noted that although humans take in large amounts of visual information, adults are only able to process, attend to, and hold in memory up to roughly four items from the visual environment.<ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Alvarez|first=G.A.|last2= GA, Cavanagh|first2= P.|date=2004-02 | title = The Capacitycapacity of Visualvisual Shortshort-Termterm Memorymemory is Setset Bothboth by Visualvisual Informationinformation Loadload and by Numbernumber of Objectsobjects |url language =https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0963 en-7214.2004.01502006.xUS | journal = Psychological Science |language=en-US| volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages =106–111 106–11 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14738517 | doi = 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502006.x |issn url =0956 http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-79763:HUL.InstRepos:41302706 }}</ref><ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Luck|first=Steven J.|last2=SJ, Vogel|first2=Edward K.|date=1997-11EK | title = The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/36846| journal = Nature |language=en| volume = 390 | issue = 6657 | pages =279–281 279–81 | date = November 1997 | pmid = 9384378 | doi = 10.1038/36846 |issn bibcode =1476-4687 1997Natur.390..279L }}</ref> Furthermore, scientists have found that this visual upper limit capacity exists across various phenomena including change blindness,<ref>{{Citecite journal |last=O'Regan |first=J. Kevin |last2=Deubel |first2=Heiner |last3=Clark |first3=James J. |last4=Rensink |first4=Ronald A. | name-list-format = vanc |date=2000-01-01|title=Picture Changes During Blinks: Looking Without Seeing and Seeing Without Looking|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/135062800394766|journal=Visual Cognition|volume=7|issue=1-31–3|pages=191–211|doi=10.1080/135062800394766|issn=1350-6285}}</ref><ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Simons DJ, Chabris CF |first title =Daniel J.Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events |last2 journal =Chabris Perception |first2 volume =Christopher F.28 | issue = 9 | pages = 1059–74 | date = 1999-09-01 |title=Gorillas inpmid Our= Midst:10694957 Sustained| Inattentionaldoi Blindness= for10.1068/p281059 Dynamic Events:| url = https://journals.sagepubsemanticscholar.comorg/doi/pdf/10.1068paper/p281059|journal=Perception|language=en|doi=10.1068/p28105944886a79b858115854c6c949c3799c2148016b75 }}</ref> object-tracking,<ref>Scholl, Scholl, B. J., Pylyshyn, B. J. (1999). Tracking Multiple Items Through Occlusion: Clues to Visual Objecthood. Cognitive psychology, 38(2), 259-290. </ref> and feature representation.<ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Luck|first=Steven J.|last2=SJ, Vogel|first2=Edward K.|date=1997-11EK | title = The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/36846| journal = Nature |language=en| volume = 390 | issue = 6657 | pages =279–281 279–81 | date = November 1997 | pmid = 9384378 | doi = 10.1038/36846 |issn bibcode =1476-4687 1997Natur.390..279L }}</ref>
=== Low resolution representations and limited capacity ===
Additional theories in vision science propose that stimuli are represented in the brain individually as small, low resolution, icons stored in templates with limited capacities and are organized through associative links.<ref>{{Citecite book | vauthors = Nakayama K | chapter = The iconic bottleneck and the tenuous link between early visual processing and perception. | veditors = Adler K, Pointon M | title = Vision: Coding and efficiency | date = 1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=xGJ_DxN3eygC&oi=fnd&pg=PA411&dq=The+iconic+bottleneck+and+the+tenuous+link+between+early+visual+processing+and+perception.+&ots=VtUSEGXtvE&sig=7Q6FbzFnbGsHP6ngmn2b8xpFD98#v=onepage&q=The%20iconic%20bottleneck%20and%20the%20tenuous%20link%20between%20early%20visual%20processing%20and%20perception.&f=false|title=Vision: Coding and Efficiency|last=Adler|first=K.|last2=Pointon|first2=M.|date=1993-05-13 |publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-44769-0|language=en }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Neisser, U. (| date = 1967). | title = Cognitive psychology.Psychology | ___location = New York: | publisher = Appleton-Cent }}</ref>
== History ==
== Current era ==
Seminal findings by Dan Ariely in 2001 were the first data to support theories of ensemble coding. Ariely used novel experimental paradigms he labeled "mean discrimination" and "member identification" to examine how sets of objects are perceived. He conducted three studies involving shape ensembles that varied in size. Across all studies participants were able to accurately encode the mean size of the ensemble, but they were inaccurate when asked if a certain circle was apart of the set. Ariely's findings were the first that found statistical summary information emerge in the visual perception of grouped objects.<ref name=":1">{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Ariely D |first=Dan|date=2001| title = Seeing Setssets: Representationrepresentation by Statisticalstatistical properties Properties|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40063604| journal = Psychological Science | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages =157–162 157–62 |issn date =0956 March 2001 | pmid = 11340926 | doi = 10.1111/1467-79769280.00327 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/5494c4ca523c5ef1999941e27c5248cea907c7af | jstor = 40063604 }}</ref>
Consistent with Ariely's findings,<ref name=":1" /> follow up research conducted by Sang Chul Chong and Anne Treisman in 2003, provided evidence that participants are engaging in summary statistical processes. Their research revealed that participant's maintained high accuracy in encoding the mean size of the stimuli even with short stimuli presentations (50ms), memory delays, and circle distribution differences.<ref name=":2">{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Chong|first=Sang Chul|last2=SC, Treisman A |first2=Anne|date=2003-02-01| title = Representation of statistical properties |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698902005965| journal = Vision Research | volume = 43 | issue = 4 | pages = 393–404 | date = February 2003 | pmid = 12535996 | doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5|issn=0042-6989 }}</ref>
Additional work has demonstrated that ensemble coding isn't limited to the mean,<ref name=":1" /> but line orientation,<ref name=":3">{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Dakin|first=S. C.|last2=SC, Watt RJ |first2=R. J.|date=1997-11-01|title = The computation of orientation statistics from visual texture |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0042698997001338| journal = Vision Research | volume = 37 | issue = 22 | pages =3181–3192 3181–92 | date = November 1997 | pmid = 9463699 | doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00133-8|issn=0042-6989 }}</ref> spatial ___location,<ref name=":4">{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Alvarez|first=George GA, Oliva A.|last2=Oliva|first2=Aude|date=2008-04-01 | title = The Representationrepresentation of Simplesimple Ensembleensemble Visualvisual Featuresfeatures Outsideoutside the Focusfocus of Attention|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02098.xattention | journal = Psychological Science |language=en| volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages =392–398 392–8 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18399893 | pmc = 2587223 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02098.x|issn=0956-7976|pmc=PMC2587223|pmid=18399893 }}</ref> number,<ref name=":5">{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Halberda|first=Justin|last2= J, Sires|first2=Sean F.|last3=SF, Feigenson L |first3=Lisa|date=2006-07-01| title = Multiple Spatiallyspatially Overlappingoverlapping Setssets Cancan Bebe Enumeratedenumerated in Parallel|url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01746.xparallel | journal = Psychological Science |language=en| volume = 17 | issue = 7 | pages =572–576 572–6 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16866741 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01746.x|issn=0956-7976 }}</ref> and additional statistical summaries like the variances<ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Solomon|first=Joshua A.|last2=JA, Morgan|first2=Michael|last3= M, Chubb C |first3=Charles|date=2011-10-01| title = Efficiencies for the statistics of size discrimination |url=http://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2121004| journal = Journal of Vision |language=en| volume = 11 | issue = 12 | pages =13–13 13 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 22011381 | pmc = 4135075 | doi = 10.1167/11.12.13|issn=1534-7362|pmc=PMC4135075|pmid=22011381 }}</ref> are detected.
== Levels ==
=== Low ===
Low-level ensemble coding has been observed in the perception of size,<ref name=":2" /> motion,<ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Watamaniuk|first=Scott N.SN, J.|last2=Sekuler|first2=Robert|last3= R, Williams|first3=Douglas W.|date=1989-01-01DW | title = Direction perception in complex dynamic displays: Thethe integration of direction information |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0042698989901739| journal = Vision Research | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–59 | date = 1989-01-01 | pmid = 2773336 | doi = 10.1016/0042-6989(89)90173-9|issn=0042-6989 }}</ref><ref>{{Citecite journal |last vauthors = Watamaniuk|first=Scott N.SN, J.|last2=McKee|first2=Suzanne P.|date=1998-01-01SP | title = Simultaneous encoding of direction at a local and global scale |url=https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03206028| journal = Perception & Psychophysics |language=en| volume = 60 | issue = 2 | pages = 191–200 | date = February 1998 | pmid = 9529903 | doi = 10.3758/BF03206028|issn=1532-5962 }}</ref> number,<ref name=":5" /> line orientation,<ref name=":3" /> and spacial ___location.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":0" />
=== High ===
| 