Encoding (memory): Difference between revisions

Revision as of 22:26, 4 June 2020

Revision as of 02:34, 9 June 2020

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==Types==

There are many types of encoding that are used intensively such as visual, elaborative, organizational, acoustic, and semantic. However, this is not an exclusively extensive list as there are other encoding that are also used.

===Visual Encoding===

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Semantic encoding is the processing and encoding of sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a context. Various strategies can be applied such as [[Chunking (psychology)|chunking]] and [[mnemonic]]s to aid in encoding, and in some cases, allow deep processing, and optimizing retrieval.

Words studied in semantic or deep encoding conditions are better recalled as compared to both easy and hard groupings of non semanticnonsemantic or shallow encoding conditions with response time being the deciding variable.<ref name="Demb">Demb, JB., Desmond, JE., Gabrieli, JD., Glover, GH., Vaidya, CJ., & Wagner, AD. Semantic encoding and retrieval in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: a functional MRI study of task difficulty and process specificity. The Journal of Neuroscience; 15, 5870-5878.</ref> [[Brodmann area|Brodmann's areas]] 45, 46, and 47 (the left inferior prefrontal cortex or LIPC) showed significantly more activation during semantic encoding conditions compared to non semanticnonsemantic encoding conditions regardless of the difficulty of the non semanticnonsemantic encoding task presented. The same area showing increased activation during initial semantic encoding will also display decreasing activation with repetitive semantic encoding of the same words. This suggests the decrease in activation with repetition is process specific occurring when words are semantically reprocessed but not when they are non semanticallynonsemantically reprocessed.<ref name="Demb" /> Lesion and neuroimaging studies suggest that the [[orbitofrontal cortex]] is responsible for initial encoding and that activity in the left lateral prefrontal cortex correlates with the semantic organization of encoded information.<ref name="Frey, Stephen, and Michael Petrides. 2002">Frey, S., & Petrides, M. (2002). Orbitofrontal cortex and memory formation. Neuron, 36(1), 171-176.</ref>

===Acoustic Encoding===

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One study used PET to measure cerebral blood flow during encoding and recognition of faces in both young and older participants. Young people displayed increased cerebral blood flow in the right hippocampus and the left prefrontal and temporal cortices during encoding and in the right prefrontal and parietal cortex during recognition.<ref name="Grady">Grady, CL., Horwitz, B., Haxby, JV., Maisog, JM., McIntosh, AR., Mentis, MJ., Pietrini, P., Schapiro, MB., & Underleider, LG. (1995) Age-related reductions in human recognition memory due to inpaired encoding. Science, 269:5221, 218-221.</ref> Elderly people showed no significant activation in areas activated in young people during encoding, however they did show right prefrontal activation during recognition.<ref name="Grady"/> Thus it may be concluded that as we grow old, failing memories may be the consequence of a failure to adequately encode stimuli as demonstrated in the lack of cortical and hippocampal activation during the encoding process.<ref name="Grady"/>

Recent findings in studies focusing on patients with post traumatic stress disorder demonstrate that amino acid transmitters, glutamate and GABA, are intimately implicated in the process of factual memory registration, and suggest that amine neurotransmitters, nornorepinephrine-epinephrine and serotonin, are involved in encoding emotional memory.<ref name="Birmes">Birmes, P., Escande, M., Schmitt, L. & Senard, JM. (2002). Biological Factors of PTSD: neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. Encephale, 28: 241-247.</ref>

==Molecular Perspective==