Reconstructive memory: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 06:58, 13 December 2020

Revision as of 16:18, 14 January 2021

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Memory rarely relies on a literal recount of past experiences. By using multiple interdependent cognitive processes, there is never a single ___location in the brain where a given complete [[Multiple trace theory|memory trace]] of experience is stored.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Squire|first1=LR|year=1992|title=Memory and the hippocampus: a synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans|url=http://whoville.ucsd.edu/PDFs/188_Squire_PsychRev_1992.pdf|journal=Psychol. Rev.|volume=99|issue=2|pages=195–231|doi=10.1037/0033-295x.99.2.195|pmid=1594723}}</ref> Rather, memory is dependent on constructive processes during encoding that may introduce errors or distortions. Essentially, the constructive memory process functions by encoding the patterns of perceived physical characteristics, as well as the interpretive conceptual and semantic functions that act in response to the incoming information.<ref>Schacter DL. 1989. Memory. In Foundations

of Cognitive Science, ed. MI Posner, pp.

683–725. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press</ref>

In this manner, the various features of the experience must be joined together to form a coherent representation of the episode.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite journal|last1=Hemmer|first1=Pernille|last2=Steyvers|first2=Mark|date=2009|title=A Bayesian Account of Reconstructive Memory|journal=Topics in Cognitive Science|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=189–202|doi=10.1111/j.1756-8765.2008.01010.x|pmid=25164805|issn=1756-8765}}</ref> If this binding process fails, it can result in [[Memorymemory error|memory errors]]s. The complexity required for reconstructing some episodes is quite demanding and can result in incorrect or incomplete recall.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Torres-Trejo|first1=Frine|last2=Cansino|first2=Selene|date=2016-06-30|title=The Effects of the Amount of Information on Episodic Memory Binding|journal=Advances in Cognitive Psychology|volume=12|issue=2|pages=79–87|doi=10.5709/acp-0188-z|pmid=27512526|issn=1895-1171|doi-access=free}}</ref> This complexity leaves individuals susceptible to phenomena such as the [[misinformation effect]] across subsequent recollections.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kiat|first1=John E.|last2=Belli|first2=Robert F.|date=2017-05-01|title=An exploratory high-density EEG investigation of the misinformation effect: Attentional and recollective differences between true and false perceptual memories|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1074742717300606|journal=Neurobiology of Learning and Memory|language=en|volume=141|pages=199–208|doi=10.1016/j.nlm.2017.04.007|issn=1074-7427|pmid=28442391|s2cid=4421445}}</ref> By employing reconstructive processes, individuals supplement other aspects of available personal knowledge and schema into the gaps found in episodic memory in order to provide a fuller and more coherent version, albeit one that is often distorted.

Many errors can occur when attempting to retrieve a specific episode. First, the retrieval cues used to initiate the search for a specific episode may be too similar to other experiential memories and the retrieval process may fail if the individual is unable to form a specific description of the unique characteristics of the given memory they would like to retrieve.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burgess | first1 = PW | last2 = Shallice | first2 = T | year = 1996 | title = Confabulation and the control of recollection | journal = Memory | volume = 4 | issue = 4| pages = 359–411 | doi = 10.1080/096582196388906 | pmid = 8817460 }}</ref> When there is little available distinctive information for a given episode there will be more overlap across multiple episodes, leading the individual to recall only the general similarities common to these memories. Ultimately proper recall for a desired target memory fails due to the interference of non-target memories that are activated because of their similarity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1name=Hemmer|first1=Pernille|last2=Steyvers|first2=Mark|date=2009|title=A Bayesian Account of Reconstructive Memory|journal=Topics in Cognitive Science|language=en|volume=1|issue=1|pages=189–202|doi=10.1111/j.1756-8765.2008.01010.x|pmid=25164805|issn=1756-8765}}<"ReferenceA"/ref>

Secondly, a large number of errors that occur during memory reconstruction are caused by faults in the criterion-setting and decision making processes used to direct attention towards retrieving a specific target memory. When there are lapses in the recall of aspects of episodic memory, the individual tends to supplement other aspects of knowledge that are unrelated to the actual episode to form a more cohesive and well-rounded reconstruction of the memory, regardless of whether or not the individual is aware of such supplemental processing. This process is known as [[confabulation]]. All of the supplemental processes occurring during the course of reconstruction rely on the use of schema, information networks that organize and store abstract knowledge in the brain.

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====Anxiety and stress====

Anxiety is a state of distress or uneasiness of mind caused by fear<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/anxiety|title=Anxiety - Define Anxiety at Dictionary.com}}</ref> and it is a consistently associated with witnessing crimes. In a study done by Yuille and Cutshall (1986), they discovered that witnesses of real-life violent crimes were able to remember the event quite vividly even five months after it originally occurred.<ref name="simplypsych"/> In fact, witnesses to violent or traumatic crimes often self-report the memory as being particularly vivid. For this reason, [[eyewitness memory]] is often listed as an example of [[flashbulb memory]].

However, in a study by Clifford and Scott (1978), participants were shown either a film of a violent crime or a film of a non-violent crime. The participants who viewed the stressful film had difficulty remembering details about the event compared to the participants that watched the non-violent film.<ref name="simplypsych" /> In a study by Brigham et al. (2010), subjects who experienced an electrical shock were less accurate in facial recognition tests, suggesting that some details were not well remembered under stressful situations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Brigham|first1=John C.|last2=Maass|first2=Anne|last3=Martinez|first3=David|last4=Whittenberger|first4=Gary|date=1983-09-01|title=The Effect of Arousal on Facial Recognition|journal=Basic and Applied Social Psychology|volume=4|issue=3|pages=279–293|doi=10.1207/s15324834basp0403_6|issn=0197-3533}}</ref> In fact, in the case of the phenomena known as [[weapon focus]], eyewitnesses to stressful crimes involving weapons may perform worse during suspect identification.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fawcett|first1=Jonathan M.|last2=Peace|first2=Kristine A.|last3=Greve|first3=Andrea|date=2016-09-01|title=Looking Down the Barrel of a Gun: What Do We Know About the Weapon Focus Effect?|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211368116300699|journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition|language=en|volume=5|issue=3|pages=257–263|doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2016.07.005|issn=2211-3681|doi-access=free}}</ref>

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====Cue-dependent forgetting====

[[Cue-dependent forgetting]] (also known as retrieval failure) occurs when memories are not obtainable because the appropriate cues are absent.<ref name="APA Dictionary of Psychology">{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/|title=APA Dictionary of Psychology|website=dictionary.apa.org|language=en|access-date=2020-04-14}}</ref>. This is associated with a relatively common occurrence known as the [[tip of the tongue]] (TOT) phenomenon, originally developed by the psychologist [[William James]]. Tip of the tongue phenomenon refers to when an individual knows particular information, and they are aware that they know this information, yet can not produce it even though they may know certain aspects about the information.<ref>Willingham, D.B. (2001). Cognition: The thinking animal. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.</ref> For example, during an exam a student is asked who theorized the concept of Psychosexual Development, the student may be able to recall the details about the actual theory but they are unable to retrieve the memory associated with who originally introduced the theory.

====Priming====

Priming refers to an increased sensitivity to certain stimuli due to prior experience.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.apa.org/|titlename="APA Dictionary of Psychology|website=dictionary.apa.org|language=en|access-date=2020-04-14}}<"/ref>. Priming is believed to occur outside of conscious awareness, which makes it different from memory that relies on the direct retrieval of information.<ref>Cherry, K. (2009, March 26). Priming - What Is Priming. Psychology - Complete Guide to Psychology for Students, Educators & Enthusiasts.</ref> Priming can influence reconstructive memory because it can interfere with retrieval cues. Psychologist [[Elizabeth Loftus]] presented many papers concerning the effects of proactive interference on the recall of eyewitness events. Interference involving priming was established in her classic [[Reconstruction of automobile destruction|study]] with John Palmer in 1974.<ref>{{cite journal | URL = https://webfiles.uci.edu/eloftus/LoftusPalmer74.pdf | last = Loftus | first = EF |author2=Palmer JC | author-link = Elizabeth Loftus | year = 1974 | title = Reconstruction of Automobile Destruction : An Example of the Interaction Between Language and Memory | journal = Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior | volume = 13 | issue = 5 | pages = 585–9 | DOI = 10.1016/S0022-5371(74)80011-3 }}</ref> Loftus and Palmer recruited 150 participants and showed each of them a film of a traffic accident. After, they had the participants fill out a questionnaire concerning the video's details. The participants were split into three groups:

* Group A contained 50 participants that were asked: "About how fast were the cars going when they '''hit''' each other?”

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===Confabulation===

[[File:Schizophrenia fMRI working memory.jpg|thumb|right|FMRI showing the active areas of a schizophrenic participant's brain while performing working memory tasks]]

[[Confabulation]] is the involuntary false remembering of events and can be a characteristic of several psychological diseases such as [[Korsakoff's syndrome]], [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[schizophrenia]] and traumatic injury of certain brain structures.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robins|first=Sarah K.|date=2019-06-01|title=Confabulation and constructive memory|journal=Synthese|language=en|volume=196|issue=6|pages=2135–2151|doi=10.1007/s11229-017-1315-1|s2cid=46967747|issn=1573-0964}}</ref>. Those confabulating don't know that what they are remembering is false and have no intent to deceive.<ref name="Moscovitch">Moscovitch M. 1995. Confabulation. In (Eds. Schacter D.L., Coyle J.T., Fischbach G.D., Mesulum M.M. & Sullivan L.G.), Memory Distortion (pp. 226-251). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref>

In the regular process of reconstruction, several sources are used to accrue information and add detail to memory. For patients producing confabulations, some key sources of information are missing and so other sources are used to produce a cohesive, internally consistent, and often believable [[false memory]].<ref name=book>{{cite book |editor-last=Nalbantian |editor-first=Suzanne |title=The memory process : neuroscientific and humanistic perspectives|year=2010|publisher=MIT Press|___location=Cambridge, Mass.|isbn=978-0-262-01457-1 |editor2=Matthews, Paul M. |editor3=McClelland, James L.}}</ref> The source and type of confabulations differ for each type of disease or area of traumatic damage.

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<references/>

{{Memory}}

[[Category:Cognitive psychology]]

[[Category:Memory]]