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w{{Cyborg}}
'''Distributed cognition''' is an approach to [[cognitive science]] research that deploys models of the extended mind (see, for example, the paper ''[[The Extended Mind]]'') by taking as the fundamental unit of analysis "a collection of individuals and artifacts and their relations to each other in a particular work practice".<ref name = "Rogers_1994">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rogers Y, Ellis J | title = Distributed cognition: an alternative framework for analysing and explaining collaborative working. | journal = Journal of Information Technology | date = June 1994 | volume = 9 | issue = 2 | pages = 119–28 | doi = 10.1177/026839629400900203 | s2cid = 219981758 | url = http://www.dourish.com/classes/ics234bs03/14-RogersEllis-DistCog.pdf }}</ref> "DCog" is a specific approach to distributed cognition (distinct from other meanings)<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s13164-013-0131-x |issn=1878-5158 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 | vauthors = Michaelian K, Sutton J |title=Distributed Cognition and Memory Research: History and Current Directions |journal=Review of Philosophy and Psychology |date=2013-02-20 |hdl=11693/37950 |s2cid=9818565 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> which takes a computational perspective towards goal-based activity systems.<ref>{{cite web| vauthors = Perry M |title=Some simple definitions in Distributed Cognition (DCog) |url=http://people.brunel.ac.uk/~cssrmjp/homefiles/home.html|access-date=22 November 2015}}</ref>
Using insights from [[sociology]], [[cognitive science]], and the psychology of [[Vygotsky]] (cf. [[cultural-historical psychology]]) it emphasizes the ways that cognition is off-loaded into the environment through social and technological means. It is a framework for studying cognition rather than a type of cognition. This framework involves the coordination between individuals, artifacts and the environment.
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Daniel L. Schwartz (1978) proposed a distribution of cognition through culture and the distribution of beliefs across the members of a society.{{Citation needed|date=August 2013}}
In 1998, Mark Perry from [[Brunel University London]] explored the problems and the benefits brought by distributed cognition to "understanding the organisation of information within its contexts." He considered that distributed cognition draws from the [[information processing]] metaphor of cognitive science where a [[system]] is considered in terms of its inputs and outputs and tasks are decomposed into a [[problem space]].<ref name = "Perry_1998">{{cite conference | vauthors = Perry M | date = 13–15 August 1998 | url = https://www.researchgate.net
In 1999, [[Gavriel Salomon]] stated that there were two classes of distributive cognition: shared cognition and off-loading{{citation needed|date=November 2014}}. Shared cognition is that which is shared among people through common activity such as conversation where there is a constant change of cognition based on the other person's responses. An example of off-loading would be using a calculator to do [[arithmetic]] or a creating a grocery list when going shopping. In that sense, the cognitive duties are off-loaded to a material object.
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Distributed cognition as a theory of learning, i.e. one in which the development of knowledge is attributed to the system of thinking agents interacting dynamically with artifacts, has been widely applied in the field of [[distance education|distance learning]], especially in relation to [[computer-supported collaborative learning]] (CSCL) and other computer-supported learning tools. For example, in the field of teaching English Composition, Kevin LaGrandeur has argued that CSCL provides a source of common memory, collaborative space, and a cognitive artifact (tool to enhance cognition) that allows students to more easily build effective written compositions via explicit and implicit machine-human collaboration. Distributed cognition illustrates the process of interaction between people and technologies in order to determine how to best represent, store and provide access to digital resources and other artifacts.
[[Collaborative tagging]] on the [[World Wide Web]] is one of the most recent developments in technological support for distributed cognition. Beginning in 2004<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Mika P | chapter = Ontologies are us: A unified model of social networks and semantics. | title = International semantic web conference | series = Lecture Notes in Computer Science | date = November 2005 | volume = 3729 | pages = 522–536 | publisher = Springer | ___location = Berlin, Heidelberg. | doi = 10.1007/11574620_38 | isbn = 978-3-540-29754-3 }}</ref> and quickly becoming a standard on websites, collaborative tagging allows users to upload or select materials (e.g. pictures, music files, texts, websites) and associate tags with these materials. Tags can be chosen freely, and are similar to keywords. Other users can then browse through tags; a click on a tag connects a user to similarly tagged materials. Tags furthermore enable [[tag cloud]]s, which graphically represent the popularity of tags, demonstrating co-occurrence relations between tags and thus jump from one tag to another.
Dcog has also been used to understand learning and communication in clinical settings and to obtain an integrated view of clinical workplace learning. It has been observed how medical actors use and connect gestural practices, along with visual and haptic structures of their own bodies and of artifacts such as technological instruments and computational devices. In so doing they co-construct complex, multimodal representations that go beyond the mental representations usually studied from a cognitive perspective of learning.<ref name="Pimmer_2013">{{cite journal | vauthors = Pimmer C, Pachler N, Genewein U | title = Reframing clinical workplace learning using the theory of distributed cognition | journal = Academic Medicine : Journal of the Association of American Medical Colleges | volume = 88 | issue = 9 | pages = 1239–45 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23887014 | doi = 10.1097/ACM.0b013e31829eec0a | s2cid = 12371185 }}</ref>
Distributed cognition can also be seen through cultures and communities. Learning certain habits or following certain traditions is seen as cognition distributed over a group of people. Exploring distributed cognition through community and culture is one way to understand how it may work.
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With the new research that is emerging in this field, the overarching concept of distributed cognition enhances the understanding of interactions between individual human beings and artifacts such as technologies and machines, and complex external environments.{{Nonspecific|date=August 2013}} This concept has been applied to educational research in the areas of [[Distributed Leadership|distributed leadership]] and distributed instruction{{Nonspecific|date=November 2015}}.
Distributed cognition between internal and external processing has also been used to study [[Problem solving|problem-solving]] and [[Bayesian reasoning]]. For example, it has been observed that the use of external manipulable materials such as cards and tokens can help improve performance and reduce [[cognitive bias]] such as the [[Base rate fallacy|base-rate fallacy]], even among adult problem-solvers, as long as they physically interact with these artefacts.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vallée-Tourangeau G, Abadie M, Vallée-Tourangeau F | title = Interactivity fosters Bayesian reasoning without instruction | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. General | volume = 144 | issue = 3 | pages = 581–603 | date = June 2015 | pmid = 26030173 | doi = 10.1037/a0039161 | url = https://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/id/eprint/31315/1/Vallee-Tourangeau-G-31315.pdf }}</ref> It has also been reported that interacting with tokens can reduce the impact of [[mathematical anxiety]] on [[mental calculation]] performance<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vallée-Tourangeau F, Sirota M, Vallée-Tourangeau G | title = Interactivity mitigates the impact of working memory depletion on mental arithmetic performance | journal = Cognitive Research | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 26 | date = 2016-12-XX | pmid = 28180177 | pmc = 5256453 | doi = 10.1186/s41235-016-0027-2 }}</ref> and supports [[insight]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Henok N, Vallée-Tourangeau F, Vallée-Tourangeau G | title = Incubation and interactivity in insight problem solving | journal = Psychological Research | volume = 84 | issue = 1 | pages = 128–139 | date = February 2020 | pmid = 29480412 | pmc = 6994426 | doi = 10.1007/s00426-018-0992-9 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal| vauthors = Fleck JI, Weisberg RW |date=2013-06-01|title=Insight versus analysis: Evidence for diverse methods in problem solving |journal=Journal of Cognitive Psychology|volume=25|issue=4|pages=436–463|doi=10.1080/20445911.2013.779248|s2cid=146689726|issn=2044-5911}}</ref> although the evidence is mixed with regards to the impact of distributing cognition between internal and external processing with regards to [[insight]]<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chuderski A, Jastrzębski J, Kucwaj H | title = How physical interaction with insight problems affects solution rates, hint use, and cognitive load | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 112 | issue = 1 | pages = 120–143 | date = February 2021 | pmid = 32125690 | doi = 10.1111/bjop.12442 }}</ref>.
==Metaphors and examples==
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Another well-researched site for analyzing distributed cognition and applying the discovered insights towards the design of more optimal systems is aviation, where both cockpits and air traffic control environments have been studied as scenes that technologically and socially distribute cognition through systems of externalized representational media. It is not the cognitive performance and expertise of any one single person or machine that is important for the continued operation or the landing and takeoff of airplanes. The cognition is distributed over the personnel, sensors, and machinery both in the plane and on the ground, including but not limited to the controllers, pilots and crew as a whole.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hutchins E | title = How a Cockpit Remembers Its Speeds | journal = Cognitive Science | date = July 1995 | volume = 19 | issue = 3 | pages = 265–88 | doi = 10.1207/s15516709cog1903_1 }}</ref>
Hutchins also examined another scene of distributed cognition within the context of navigating a US navy vessel.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Caroll JM |title= HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks: Toward a Multidisciplinary Science |date=2003 |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |___location=San Francisco, Calif. |isbn=978-0-08-049141-7}}</ref> In his book on USS Palau,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Hutchins E |title=Cognition in the wild |date=1995 |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-262-58146-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CGIaNc3F1MgC
In his study on process, representation and task world, Mark Perry<ref name = "Perry_1998" /> demonstrated how distributed cognition analysis can be conducted in a field study. His example was design analysis in [[Civil engineering]]. In this work, he showed how an information processing approach can be applied by carrying a detailed analysis of the background of the study - goals and resources, inputs and outputs, representations and processes, and transformational activity, "how information was transformed from the design drawings and site onto tables of measurements (different representations)" and then onto "a graphical representation" which provided a clearer demonstration of the relationship between the two data sets.<ref name = "Perry_1998" />
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== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Brown AL, Ash D, Rutherford M, Nakagawa K, Gordon A, Campione JC | chapter = Distributed expertise in the classroom | pages = 188–228 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?
* {{cite book | vauthors = Dror IE, Harnad S | date = 2008 | chapter-url =
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Gureckis TM, Goldstone RL | title = Thinking in groups. | journal = Pragmatics & Cognition | date = January 2006 | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 293–311 | doi = 10.1075/pc.14.2.10gur }}
* {{cite conference | vauthors = Heylighen F, Heath M, Van F | author-link1 = Francis Heylighen | title = The Emergence of Distributed Cognition: a conceptual framework. | conference = Proceedings of collective intentionality IV | date = 2004 | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Hollan J, Hutchins E, Kirsh D | title = Distributed cognition: toward a new foundation for human-computer interaction research. | date = June 2000
* {{cite web | vauthors = LaGrandeur K | title = Splicing Ourselves into the Machine: Electronic Communities, Systems Theory, and Composition Studies | date = March 1997 | url = https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED410563.pdf }}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Norman DA |title=Things That Make Us Smart : Defending Human Attributes in the Age of the Machine. |date=December 2014 |publisher=Diversion Books |___location=New York |isbn=978-1-62681-537-7}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Pea RD | date = 1993 | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?
* {{cite book | vauthors = Perry M | date = 2003 | chapter = Distributed Cognition | veditors = Carroll JM | title = HCI Models, Theories, and Frameworks: Toward an Interdisciplinary Science | publisher = Morgan Kaufmann | pages = 193–223 }}
* {{cite book | veditors = Resnick L, Levine S, Teasley L |title=Perspectives on socially shared cognition |date=1991 |publisher=American Psychological Association |___location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-1-55798-376-3 |edition=1st}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Roberts JM |author-link=John Milton Roberts |year=1964 |chapter=The Self-Management of Cultures | veditors = Goodenough WH |title=Explorations in Cultural Anthropology |publisher=McGraw Hill |___location=New York}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Ross D, Spurrett D, Stephens GL, Kincaid H |title=Distributed cognition and the will : individual volition and social context |date=2007 |publisher=MIT Press |___location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-262-68169-8}}
* {{cite book | vauthors = Salomon G |year=1997 |title=Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn =978-0-521-57423-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVFFnwEACAAJ}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang J | title = The nature of external representations in problem solving. | journal = Cognitive Science | date = April 1997 | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 179–217 | doi = 10.1016/S0364-0213(99)80022-6 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Zhang J, Patel VL | title = Distributed cognition, representation, and affordance. | journal = Pragmatics & Cognition | date = January 2006 | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 333–41 | doi = 10.1075/pc.14.2.12zha }}
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