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==Sleep==
Practice is clearly an important process for learning and perfecting a new skill. With over 40 years of research, it is well established in both humans and animals that the formation of all forms of memory are greatly enhanced during the brain-state of sleep. Furthermore, with humans, sleep has been consistently shown to aid in the development of procedural knowledge by the ongoing process of memory consolidation, especially when sleep soon follows the initial phase of memory acquisition.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Karni | first1 = A. | last2 = Tanne | first2 = D. | last3 = Rubenstein | first3 = B.S. | last4 = Askenasy | first4 = J.J. | last5 = Sagi | first5 = D. | year = 1994 | title = Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill | journal = Science | volume = 265 | issue = 5172| pages = 679–682 | doi=10.1126/science.8036518| pmid = 8036518 | bibcode = 1994Sci...265..679K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gais | first1 = S. | last2 = Plihal | first2 = W. | last3 = Wagner | first3 = U. | last4 = Born | first4 = J. | year = 2000 | title = Early sleep triggers memory for early visual discrimination skills | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ba7d00d764e18b32c63b0eae5a5edf9854b09c28| journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 3 | issue = 12| pages = 1335–1339 | doi=10.1038/81881| pmid = 11100156 | s2cid = 2075857 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stickgold | first1 = R. | last2 = James | first2 = L. | last3 = Hobson | first3 = J.A. | year = 2000a | title = Visual discrimination learning requires sleep after training | journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 3 | issue = 12| pages = 1237–1238 | doi=10.1038/81756| pmid = 11100141 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stickgold | first1 = R. | last2 = Whidbee | first2 = D. | last3 = Schirmer | first3 = B. | last4 = Patel | first4 = V. | last5 = Hobson | first5 = J.A. | year = 2000b | title = Visual discrimination task improvement: A multi-step process occurring during sleep | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f635eb5e63eff7dc17c1b0b9548f80b1b35b76cf| journal = J. Cogn. Neurosci. | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 246–254 | doi=10.1162/089892900562075| pmid = 10771409 | s2cid = 37714158 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Walker | first1 = M.P. | last2 = Brakefield | first2 = T. | last3 = Morgan | first3 = A. | last4 = Hobson | first4 = J.A. | last5 = Stickgold | first5 = R. | year = 2002 | title = Practice with sleep makes perfect: Sleep dependent motor skill learning | journal = Neuron | volume = 35 | issue = 1| pages = 205–211 | doi=10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00746-8 | pmid=12123620| s2cid = 7025533 }}</ref> Memory consolidation is a process that transforms novel memories from a relatively fragile state to a more robust and stable condition. For a long time it was believed that the consolidation of procedural memories took place solely as a function of time,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brashers-Krug | first1 = T. | last2 = Shadmehr | first2 = R. | last3 = Bizzi | first3 = E. | year = 1996 | title = Consolidation in human motor memory | journal = Nature | volume = 382 | issue = 6588| pages = 252–255 | doi=10.1038/382252a0| pmid = 8717039 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.39.3383 | bibcode = 1996Natur.382..252B | s2cid = 4316225 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McGaugh | first1 = J.L. | year = 2000 | title = Memory—A century of consolidation | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/4599cc62e637a5619b3f9ee8dd2326d7288cbb1c| journal = Science | volume = 287 | issue = 5451| pages = 248–251 | doi=10.1126/science.287.5451.248 | pmid=10634773| bibcode = 2000Sci...287..248M | s2cid = 40693856 }}</ref> but more recent studies suggest, that for certain forms of learning, the consolidation process is exclusively enhanced during periods of sleep.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fischer | first1 = S. | last2 = Hallschmid | first2 = M. | last3 = Elsner | first3 = A.L. | last4 = Born | first4 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Sleep forms memory for finger skills | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 99 | issue = 18| pages = 11987–11991 | doi=10.1073/pnas.182178199| pmid = 12193650 | pmc = 129381 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9911987F }}</ref> However, it is important to note that not just any type of sleep is sufficient to improve procedural memory and performance on subsequent procedural tasks. In fact, within the ___domain of motor skill, there is evidence showing that no improvement on tasks is shown following a short, [[non-rapid eye movement]] (NREM; stages 2–4) sleep, such as a nap.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Siegel | first1 = J. M. | year = 2001 | title = The REM sleep-memory consolidation hypothesis | journal = Science | volume = 294 | issue = 5544| pages = 1058–1063 | doi=10.1126/science.1063049| pmid = 11691984 | bibcode = 2001Sci...294.1058S | s2cid = 2214566 }}</ref> [[REM sleep]] following a period of [[slow-wave sleep]] (SWS; combined stage 3 and 4 and the deepest form of NREM sleep), has shown to be the most beneficial type of sleep for procedural memory enhancement, especially when it takes place immediately after the initial acquisition of a skill. So essentially, a full night (or day) of uninterrupted sleep soon after learning a skill will allow for the most memory consolidation possible. Furthermore, if REM sleep is disrupted, there is no gain in procedural performance shown.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Karni | first1 = A. | last2 = Meyer | first2 = G. | last3 = Rey-Hipolito | first3 = C. | last4 = Jezzard | first4 = P. | last5 = Adams | first5 = M.M. | last6 = Turner | first6 = R. | last7 = Ungerleider | first7 = L.G. | year = 1998 | title = The acquisition of skilled motor performance: Fast and slow experience-driven changes in primarymotor cortex | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 95 | issue = 3| pages = 861–868 | doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.861| pmid = 9448252 | pmc = 33809 | bibcode = 1998PNAS...95..861K }}</ref> However, equal improvement will take place whether the sleep after practice was at night or during the daytime, as long as SWS is followed by REM sleep. It has also been shown that the enhancement in memory is specific to the learned stimulus (i.e., learning a running technique will not cross over to improvements in biking performance).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mednick | first1 = S.C. | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Sleep-dependent learning: a nap is as good as a night | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ee698a6866fc21686c4e6798f0c3dbc13e568d2d| journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 6 | issue = 7| pages = 697–698 | doi=10.1038/nn1078 | pmid=12819785| s2cid = 16348039 }}</ref> Subject performance in the Wff 'n Proof Task,<ref>Smith C. REM sleep and learning: some recent findings. In: Moffit A, Kramer M, Hoffman H, editors. The functions of dreaming. Albany:SUNY; 1993.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = C | last2 = Fazekas | first2 = A | year = 1997 | title = Amount of REM sleep and Stage 2 sleep required for efficient learning | journal = Sleep Res | volume = 26 | page = 690 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = C | last2 = Weeden | first2 = K | year = 1990 | title = Post training REMs coincident auditory stimulation enhances memory in humans | journal = Psychiatr J Univ Ott | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 85–90 | pmid = 2374793 }}</ref> the [[Tower of Hanoi]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = CT | last2 = Nixon | first2 = MR | last3 = Nader | first3 = RS | year = 2004 | title = Post training increases in REM sleep intensity implicate REM sleep in memory processing and provide a biological marker of learning potential | journal = Learn Mem | volume = 11 | issue = 6| pages = 714–9 | doi=10.1101/lm.74904| pmid = 15576889 | pmc = 534700 }}</ref> and the Mirror Tracing Task<ref>Conway J, Smith C. REM sleep and learning in humans: a sensitivity to specific types of learning tasks. In: Proceedings of the 12th Congress of the European Sleep Research Society. 1994.</ref> has been found to improve following REM sleep periods.
Whether a skill is learned explicitly (with [[attention]]) or implicitly, each plays a role in the offline consolidation effect. Research suggests that explicit awareness and understanding of the skill being learned during the acquisition process greatly improves the consolidation of procedural memories during sleep.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Robertson | first1 = E.M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2004 | title = Awareness modifies skill-learning benefits of sleep | journal = Curr. Biol. | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 208–212 | doi=10.1016/s0960-9822(04)00039-9| pmid = 14761652 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This finding is not surprising, as it is widely accepted that intention and awareness at time of learning enhances the acquisition of most forms of memory.
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Language works because of the brain’s ability to retrieve pieces of information from memory and then combine those pieces into a larger, more complex unit based on context. The latter part of this process is called unification.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hagoort | first1 = Peter | title = MUC (Memory, Unification, Control) and beyond | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4 | year = 2013 | pages = 416 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00416| pmid = 23874313 | pmc = 3709422 }}</ref> Results of several studies provide evidence that suggests procedural memory is not only responsible for sequential unification, but for syntactic priming and grammatical processing as well.
One study used patients with [[Korsakoff’s syndrome]] to show that procedural memory subserves [[syntactic priming]]. Although Korsakoff’s patients have deficits in declarative memory, their nondeclarative memory is preserved, allowing them to successfully complete syntactic priming tasks, as in the study. This result proves syntactic priming is a nondeclarative memory function. These patients were also capable of forming proper grammatical sentences, suggesting that procedural memory is responsible for grammatical processing in addition to syntactic priming.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heyselaar|first1=Evelien|last2=Segaert|first2=Katrien|last3=Walvoort|first3=Serge J.W.|last4=Kessels|first4=Roy P.C.|last5=Hagoort|first5=Peter|year=2017|title=The role of nondeclarative memory in the skill for language: Evidence from syntactic priming in patients with amnesia|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40798978/HSWKH_Neuropsychologia_revised_2.pdf|journal=Neuropsychologia|volume=101|pages=97–105|doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.033|pmid=28465069|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002D-4D0D-1|s2cid=4109634|hdl-access=free}}<!--http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40798978/HSWKH_Neuropsychologia_revised_2.pdf--></ref>
Another study’s results support the hypothesis that procedural memory subserves grammar. The study involved a series of tests for two groups: one typically developing (TD) group and one group with developmental language disorder (DLD). Those with DLD have difficulty with proper grammar usage, due to deficits in procedural memory function. Overall, the TD group performed better on each task and displayed better speed in grammatical processing than the DLD group. Therefore, this study shows that grammatical processing is a function of procedural memory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Clark | first1 = Gillian M. | last2 = Lum | first2 = Jarrad A.G. | title = Procedural memory and speed of grammatical processing: Comparison between typically developing children and language impaired children | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 71 | year = 2017 | pages = 237–247 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.015 | pmid = 29073489 }}</ref>
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