Commercial Crew Development: differenze tra le versioni

Versione delle 22:12, 7 mar 2019

Versione delle 20:03, 8 mar 2019

Riga 17:

== Panoramica del programma ==

[[File:STS-135 Harmony's hatch with U.S. flag - closeup - cropped.jpg|thumb|Bandiera lasciata sulla ISS dall'equipaggio del [[STS-135]] sarà recuperata dal prossimo equipaggio lanciato da un veicolo statunitense]]

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Il programma CCDev segue [[Commercial Orbital Transportation Services]] (COTS), un programma per lo sviluppo di lanci commerciali di merci in orbita terrestre bassa. A dicembre 2009, NASA ha fornito la seguente descrizione del programma CCDev:<ref name=nasa20091208/>

{{quote||3=The objectives of the Commercial Crew & Cargo Program are to implement U.S. Space Exploration policy with investments to stimulate the commercial space industry; facilitate U.S. private industry demonstration of cargo and crew space transportation capabilities with the goal of achieving safe, reliable, cost effective access to low-Earth orbit; and create a market environment in which commercial space transportation services are available to Government and private sector customers.<ref name=nasa20091208/>

The Commercial Crew & Cargo Program is applying Recovery Act funds to stimulate efforts within the private sector to develop and demonstrate human spaceflight capabilities. NASA plans to use funds appropriated for "Exploration" under the American Recovery & Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) through its C3PO to support efforts within the private sector to develop system concepts and capabilities that could ultimately lead to the availability of commercial human spaceflight services. These efforts are intended to foster entrepreneurial activity leading to job growth in engineering, analysis, design, and research and to promote economic recovery as capabilities for new markets are created.<ref name=nasa20091208/>

ARRA provided $400 million for space exploration related activities. Of this amount, $50 million is to be used for the development of commercial crew space transportation concepts and enabling capabilities. This effort is known as CCDev. The purpose of this activity is to provide funding to assist viable commercial entities in the development of system concepts, key technologies, and capabilities that could ultimately be used in commercial crew human space transportation systems. This development work must show, within the timeframe of the agreement, significant progress on long lead capabilities, technologies and commercial crew risk mitigation tasks in order to accelerate the development of their commercial crew space transportation concept.<ref name=nasa20091208/>|lingua=en}}

I finanziamenti per il programma CCDev è diverso dai finanziamenti consueti usati per i programmi Space Shuttle, Apollo, Gemini, e Mercury. I contratti sono stati ideati esplicitamente per finanziare lo sviluppo di tecnologia di sottosistemi che la NASA desidera per i suoi scopi; tutte le altre tecnologie sviluppate sono finanziate dall'appaltatore. I contratti sono istituiti per tappe intermedie a prezzo fisso. "Il contributo della NASA è fissato".<ref name="nasaRendezvous2010-2">{{cita web |titolo=Moving Forward: Commercial Crew Development Building the Next Era in Spaceflight |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/475795main_rendezvous_v4n3.pdf |work=Rendezvous |publisher=NASA |pages=10–17 |year=2010 |accesso= February 14, 2011 |quote="Just as in the COTS projects, in the CCDev project we have fixed-price, pay-for-performance milestones," Thorn said. "There's no extra money invested by NASA if the projects cost more than projected."}}</ref>

===Finanziamenti e l'effetto sulla tabella di marcia===

[[File:CCP Budget requests.png|right|thumb|upright=1.35|Comparazione tra finanziamenti richiesti e approvati]]

Il primo volo del programma CCDev sarebbe dovuto accadere nel 2015, ma è stato posticipato per mancanza di fondi.<ref name="AvBolden">{{cita web |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=/article-xml/asd_05_31_2013_p05-01-582316.xml|titolo=NASA Chief Repeats Warnings On Commercial Crew Delays |cognome=Norris |nome=Guy |data=31 May 2013 |publisher=Aviation Week |accesso=10 August 2013}}</ref><ref name=sfnAp2013/> L'amministratore della NASA [[Charles Bolden]] attribuì i ritardi ai finanziamenti insufficienti dal [[Congresso degli Stati Uniti d'America|Congresso]].<ref>{{cita web |url=http://blogs.nasa.gov/cm/blog/bolden/posts/post_1367334429451.html |titolo=Launching American Astronauts from U.S. Soil |cognome=Bolden |nome=Charles |data=30 April 2013 |accesso=1 May 2013 |quote=If NASA had received the President's requested funding for this plan, we would not have been forced to recently sign a new contract with Roscosmos for Soyuz transportation flights. Because the funding for the President's plan has been significantly reduced, we now won't be able to support American launches until 2017. Even this delayed availability will be in question if Congress does not fully support the President's fiscal year 2014 request for our Commercial Crew Program, forcing us once again to extend our contract with the Russians.}}</ref><ref>{{cita web|url=http://spacenews.com/nasa-making-plans-for-russian-secession-from-iss/|titolo=NASA Making Plans for Russia's Secession From ISS|cognome=Leone|nome=Dan|data=4 March 2015|publisher=SpaceNews|accesso=5 March 2015|quote=Had we gotten the funding that was first requested when I became the NASA administrator [in 2009], we would have been all joyously going to the Kennedy Space Center later this year to watch the first launch of some commercial spacecraft with our crew members on it.}}</ref> Anche [[Michael López-Alegría]], presidente della [[Commercial Spaceflight Federation]], attribuì i ritardi a problemi di finanziamenti.<ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.commercialspaceflight.org/2013/05/csf-president-michael-lopez-alegria-statement-on-nasa-contract-extension-with-roscosmos/ |titolo=CSF President Michael Lopez-Alegria Statement on NASA Contract Extension with Roscosmos |data=2 May 2013 |publisher=Commercial Spaceflight Federation |accesso=2 May 2013}}</ref>

Per il budget dell'anno fiscale (AF) 2011, il programma richiedeva 500 milioni di dollari, ma il Congresso ne concesse solo 270 milioni.<ref>{{cita web |url=http://www.spacenews.com/civil/072110senate-panel-cuts-commercial-crew-adds-funds-for-orion-and-heavy-lift.html |titolo=Senate Panel Cuts Commercial Crew, Adds Funds for Orion and Heavy Lift |data=July 21, 2010 |publisher=Space News |accesso=18 April 2012}}</ref> Per l'AF 2012, sono richiesti 850 milioni ma il Congresso approvò un budget di 406, e di conseguenza il primo volo del CCDev fu posticipato al 2017.<ref name="sfnAp2013">{{cita web |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1111/23commercialcrew/|titolo=Reduced budget threatens delay in private spaceships|cognome=Clark|nome=Stephen |data=2011-11-23 |publisher=Spaceflightnow |accesso=18 April 2012}}</ref> Per il budget del 2013, sono stati richiesti 830 milioni e sono stati approvati 488 milioni.<ref name="April2013">{{cita web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/742926main_20130419_heoc_mcalisiter%20=TAGGED.pdf|titolo=Commercial Spaceflight Update |cognome=McAlister |nome=Phillip |data=18 April 2013 |publisher=NASA |accesso=10 August 2013}}</ref> Per l'AF 2014, sono stati approvati 696 milioni a fronte degli 821 richiesti.<ref name=AvBolden/><!-- how much was actually received by NASA in FY2104? --><ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/space/nasa/is-the-relationship-between-nasa-and-private-space-about-to-sour-16441487|titolo=Is the Relationship Between NASA and Private Space About to Sour?|author=Joe Pappalardo|data=September 16, 2014|work=Popular Mechanics}}</ref> Per l'AF 2015, la NASA ha ricevuto 805 milioni, il 95% degli 848 richiesti.<ref name="sfn20141214">{{cita news |cognome1=Clark |nome1=Stephen |titolo=NASA gets budget hike in spending bill passed by Congress |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2014/12/14/nasa-gets-budget-hike-in-spending-bill-passed-by-congress/ |accesso=2014-12-15 |work=Spaceflight Now |data=2014-12-14}}</ref>

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===Spaceflight gap after STS===

{{see also|Abbandono dello Space Shuttle}}

[[File:ASTP Saturn IB.jpg|thumb|[[Saturn IB]] mounted on the "milkstool" platform. Its 1975 flight was the last manned U.S. mission until 1981]]

After the last flight of the STS in 2011 the clock began ticking on a U.S. spaceflight gap.<ref name="space.com">{{cita news |cognome1=Denise Chow |titolo=NASA Faces Awkward, Unfortunate Spaceflight Gap |url=https://www.space.com/11387-nasa-future-human-spaceflight-hurdles-nss27.html |accesso=August 10, 2018 |work=Space.com |data=April 14, 2011}}</ref> The previous spaceflight gap was between 1975 (a [[Saturn IB]] launch) and the first STS flight in April 1981, about six years.<ref name="space.com"/> Unlike the last human spaceflight gap, the U.S. has bought seats on the still-active Russian launcher as part of their continuing joint international project, the International Space Station.<ref name="space.com"/> U.S. Congress was aware such a gap could occur and accelerated funding in 2008 and 2009 in preparation for the retirement of the Shuttle.<ref name="nasaspaceflight.com"/> At that time the first crewed flight of the planned [[Ares I]] launcher would not have occurred until 2015, and its first use at ISS until 2016.<ref name="nasaspaceflight.com">{{cita web|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/02/extra-nasa-funds-initial-step-towards-gap-reduction/|titolo=Extra NASA funds: An initial step towards gap reduction options/extension - NASASpaceFlight.com|publisher=}}</ref> Steps were also taken to extend STS operation past 2010.<ref name="nasaspaceflight.com"/> However, in 2010 the Ares I was cancelled and focus shifted to the [[Space Launch System]] and the commercial crew program.<ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sls1.html|titolo=NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System|nome=Brooke|cognome=Boen|data=June 6, 2013|publisher=}}</ref> As of 2016 the first manned flight of SLS is [[Exploration Mission 2]], to launch in 2021 at the earliest.<ref>{{cita web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-s-first-flight-with-crew-will-mark-important-step-on-journey-to-mars|titolo=First Flight With Crew Will Mark Important Step on Journey to Mars|nome=Gary|cognome=Daines|data=December 1, 2016|publisher=}}</ref> As of 2016 a manned commercial crew mission might occur as early as 2018.<ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/missions/human-spaceflight/boeing-spacex-update-progress-crewed-spacecraft/|titolo=Boeing, SpaceX update progress on commercial crew spacecraft – SpaceFlight Insider|publisher=}}</ref><ref name="arstechnica.com">{{cita web|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/09/nasa-officials-mulling-the-possibility-of-purchasing-soyuz-seats-for-2019/|titolo=NASA officials mulling the possibility of purchasing Soyuz seats for 2019|publisher=}}</ref> If NASA does get access to its own launcher it may be able to again trade seats rather than buy them, or the two countries may organize another sale.<ref name="arstechnica.com"/> NASA has bought seats for 2018, and it may need to buy seats for 2019 also.<ref name="arstechnica.com"/>

NASA bought seats on the Russian launcher even while the Space Shuttle was active, and partners in the International Space Station project needed to cross-train on each-others launchers and equipment.<ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/7352868/ns/technology_and_science-space/t/time-running-out-space-station-deal/#.WF1OpBKeZ_4|titolo=Time running out for space station deal|data=April 1, 2005|publisher=}}</ref> When the STS program ended, this aspect of the involvement in ISS continued, and NASA has a contract for seats until at least 2017.<ref name="space.com1">{{cita web|url=http://www.space.com/20897-nasa-russia-astronaut-launches-2017.html|titolo=NASA to Pay $70 Million a Seat to Fly Astronauts on Russian Spacecraft|publisher=}}</ref> The price has varied over time, and the batch of seats from 2016 to 2017 works out to 70.7 million per passenger per flight.<ref name="space.com1"/> The use of the Russian launcher Soyuz by NASA was a part of the ISS program which was orchestrated in the 1990s when that project was planned out: it is used as the emergency lifeboat for the station even before the Space Shuttle retired so anyone staying on the station had to train on this spacecraft regardless.<ref>{{cita web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/nasa-knows/what-is-the-soyuz-spacecraft-k-4|titolo=What Is the Soyuz Spacecraft?|nome=Sandra|cognome=May|data=May 20, 2015|publisher=}}</ref> The first Soyuz flight to ISS in 2000 included a U.S. astronaut ([[Soyuz TM-31]] as part of [[Expedition 1]]). U.S. astronauts regularly flew on the Soyuz while the Shuttle program regularly visited the Station, even as it brought major components. Likewise Russian and other international partners also flew on the Space Shuttle and the Soyuz spacecraft, sometimes only on one direction of the journey.

The U.S. was working on an emergency escape vehicle called the [[HL-20 Personnel Launch System]] but was cancelled in 1993 in favor of using extra Soyuz spacecraft as lifeboats; not developing another spacecraft was seen as a way to save money in the aftermath of restructuring the Space Station Freedom project when the USSR dissolved in 1991.<ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.aerospaceguide.net/hl_20.html|titolo=HL-20 – Lifting Body Spaceplane for Personnel Launch System|data=August 4, 2016}}</ref> Regardless, CCDev "seats" have often been compared to Soyuz prices for comparison during its development.<ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.americaspace.com/2011/05/14/commercial-crew-to-cost-more-than-soyuz/|titolo=Commercial Crew To Cost More Than Soyuz|publisher=}}</ref> With no other launcher available NASA may have to buy seats until 2019 to access the international space station.<ref name="arstechnica.com"/> The other main partners in ISS, the ESA, cancelled its own manned launch system, the [[Hermes (spacecraft)|Hermes]] mini-shuttle, in 1992.<ref>{{cita web|url=http://www.esa.int/About_Us/Welcome_to_ESA/ESA_history/History_Hermes_spaceplane_1987|titolo=History: Hermes spaceplane, 1987|nome=|cognome=esa|publisher=}}</ref> The ESA had previously traded Spacelab hardware for flights on Space Shuttles.<ref>[https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/files/1a.pdf Space Transportation System – HAER No. TX-116 – p. 46. Quote: "..Later, NASA purchased LM2, the second lab"]</ref> There has been some interest from Europe in the CCDev contenders, especially with [[Dream Chaser]], with one party saying it was, "..ideal vehicle for a broad range of space applications."<ref>{{cita news |cognome=de Selding |nome=Peter B. |url=http://spacenews.com/dlr-renews-cooperation-with-snc-on-dream-chaser/ |titolo=DLR Renews Cooperation with SNC on Dream Chaser |work=Space News |data=April 17, 2015 |accesso=April 21, 2015}}</ref>

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== Fasi ==

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