Content deleted Content added
m Dead URLs removed where ref contains free alternative (×2). See BRFA |
Citation bot (talk | contribs) Alter: url. URLs might have been anonymized. Add: doi-access, s2cid, authors 1-1. Removed proxy/dead URL that duplicated identifier. Removed parameters. Some additions/deletions were parameter name changes. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Headbomb | Linked from Wikipedia:WikiProject_Academic_Journals/Journals_cited_by_Wikipedia/Sandbox | #UCB_webform_linked 571/1250 |
||
Line 9:
===Familiarity===
A stimulus will have a higher [[Recollection|recall]] value if it is highly compatible with preexisting semantic structures (Craik, 1972). According to [[semantic network]] theories, this is because such a stimulus will have many connections to other encoded memories, which are activated based on closeness in semantic network structure.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03210735 |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |last=Rhodes |first=MG |author2=Anastasi JS |title=The effects of a levels-of-processing manipulation on false recall |year=2000
===Specificity of processing===
Specificity of processing describes the increased recall value of a stimulus when presented in the method with which it was inputted. For example, auditory stimuli (spoken words and sounds) have the highest recall value when spoken, and visual stimuli have the highest recall value when a subject is presented with images.<ref name = Vaidya2002>{{Cite journal| volume = 40| pages = 2136–2143| last = Vaidya| first = CJ |author2=Zhao M |author3=Desmond JE |author4=Gabrieli JDE | title = Evidence for cortical encoding specificity in episodic memory: memory-induced re-activation of picture processing areas | journal = Neuropsychologia | year = 2002 | url = http://web.mit.edu/gabrieli-lab/Publications/2002/Vaidya.Neuropsy.2002.pdf | doi = 10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00053-2 | pmid = 12208009| issue = 12 | s2cid = 17108548}}</ref> In writing tasks, words are recalled most effectively with semantic cues (asking for words with a particular meaning) if they are encoded semantically (self-generated by the subject as being related to a particular meaning). Words are recalled most effectively with data-driven cues (word completion) if they are read, rather than generated by a subject.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 15| issue = 4| pages = 657–668| last = Blaxton| first = TA| title = Investigating dissociations among memory measures: Support for a transfer-appropriate processing framework| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition | year = 1989| url = http://www.colby.edu/psychology/ps341fa06/papers/Blaxton,%201989.pdf | doi = 10.1037/0278-7393.15.4.657 }}</ref>
===Self-reference effect===
Levels of processing have been an integral part of learning about memory. The self-reference effect describes the greater recall capacity for a particular stimulus if it is related semantically to the subject. This can be thought of as a corollary of the familiarity modifier, because stimuli specifically related to an event in a person's life will have widespread activation in that person's semantic network.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 121| issue = 3| pages = 371–394| last = Symons| first = CS|author2=Thompson BT | title = The self-reference effect in memory: A meta-analysis | pmid = 9136641 | journal = Psychological Bulletin | year = 1997
| url = http://digitalcommons.uconn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=chip_docs
| doi = 10.1037/0033-2909.121.3.371 | format = pdf }}</ref> For example, the recall value of a personality trait adjective is higher when subjects are asked whether the trait adjective applies to them than when asked whether trait adjective has a meaning similar to another trait.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 14| issue = 5| pages = 785–794| last = Kelley| first = WM |author2=Macrae CN |author3=Wyland CL |author4=Caglar S |author5=Inati S |author6= Heatherton TF | title = Finding the Self? An Event-Related fMRI Study | pmid = 12167262 | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience| year = 2002| doi = 10.1162/08989290260138672| citeseerx = 10.1.1.522.2494| s2cid = 2917200}}</ref>
===Implicit memory and levels-of-processing===
Line 35:
===Hearing===
Auditory stimuli follow conventional levels-of-processing rules, although are somewhat weaker in general [[Recollection|recall]] value when compared with vision. Some studies suggest that auditory weakness is only present for [[explicit memory]] (direct recall), rather than [[implicit memory]].<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.3758/BF03210786 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=130–133 |last=Habib |first=R |author2=Nyberg L |title=Incidental retrieval processes influence explicit test performance with data-limited cues |journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review |year=1997
| pmid = 9679776 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Line 44:
|issue=4
|pages=535–540
|
|first1=Kavitha
|author2=Greene AJ
Line 51:
|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
|year=1997
|
}}</ref> In this study, subjects were presented with an object in both visual and tactile form (a subject is shown a sphere but cannot touch it, and later is given a similar sphere to only hold and not view). Subjects had more trouble identifying size difference in visual fields than using tactile feedback. A suggestion for the lower level of size processing in visual fields is that it results from the high variance in viewed object size due to perspective and distance.
Line 60 ⟶ 59:
==Neural evidence ==
Several brain imaging studies using [[positron emission tomography]] and [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] techniques have shown that higher levels of processing [[correlate]] with more brain activity and activity in different parts of the brain than lower levels. For example, in a lexical analysis task, subjects showed activity in the [[prefrontal cortex|left inferior prefrontal cortex]] only when identifying whether the word represented a living or nonliving object, and not when identifying whether or not the word contained an "a".<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.91.6.2008| volume = 91| issue = 6| pages = 2008–2011| last = Kapur
| first = S|author2=FIM Craik |author3=E Tulving |author4=AA Wilson |author5=S Houle |author6=GM Brown | title = Neuroanatomical Correlates of Encoding in Episodic Memory: Levels of Processing Effect | journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | year = 1994 | pmid = 8134340| pmc = 43298 | doi-access = free}}</ref> Similarly, an auditory analysis task showed increased activation in the left inferior prefrontal cortex when subjects performed increasingly [[semantic]] word manipulations.<ref name = Fletcher/> Synaptic aspects of word recognition have been correlated with the [[Operculum (brain)|left frontal operculum]] and the cortex lining the junction of the inferior frontal and inferior precentral sulcus.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1093/cercor/10.7.698 | volume = 10 | issue = 7
| pages = 698–705 | last = Friederici | first = AD |author2=Opitz B |author3=Yves von Cramon D | title = Segregating semantic and syntactic aspects of processing in the human brain: an fMRI investigation of different word types | journal = Cereb. Cortex | year = 2000 | url = http://cercor.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/10/7/698 | format = pdf | pmid = 10906316| doi-access = free }}</ref> The self-reference effect also has neural correlates with a region of the medial [[prefrontal cortex]], which was activated in an experiment where subjects analyzed the relevance of data to themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal | last = Kelley | first = WM |author2=Macrae CN |author3=Wyland CL |author4=Caglar S |author5=Inati S |author6= Heatherton TF | title = Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study |year = 2002 | doi = 10.1162/08989290260138672 | pages = 785–794 | volume = 14 | issue = 5 | journal = Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience | pmid = 12167262 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.522.2494 | s2cid = 2917200 }}</ref> Specificity of processing is explained on a neurological basis by studies that show brain activity in the same ___location when a visual memory is encoded and retrieved, and lexical memory in a different ___location.<ref name = Vaidya2002/> Visual memory areas were mostly located within the bilateral [[Extrastriate cortex|extrastriate visual cortex]].
==Mental disorders==
Line 68 ⟶ 67:
===Age-related memory degradation===
{{main|Memory and aging}}
Memory encoding strength derived from higher levels-of-processing appears to be conserved despite other losses in memory function with age. Several studies show that, in older individuals, the ability to process semantically in contrast with non-semantically is improved by this disparity. Neural imaging studies show decreased [[Prefrontal cortex|left-prefrontal cortex]] activity when words and images are presented to older subjects than with younger subjects, but roughly equal activity when assessing semantic connections.<ref>{{Cite journal | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 224–231 | last = Grady | first = CL |author2=Craik FIM | title = Changes in memory processing with age | journal = Current Opinion in Neurobiology |year = 2000 | doi = 10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00073-8 | pmid = 10753795 | s2cid = 9567476 }}</ref>
===Panic disorders===
Panic disorders appear to modify levels-of-processing by increasing ability to [[Recollection|recall]] words with threatening meanings over positive and neutral words. In one study, both implicit (free recall) and explicit (memory of emotional aspects) memorization of word lists were enhanced by threatening meanings in such patients.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1007/BF01173032| volume = 15| issue = 5| pages = 371–386| last = Cloitre | first = M |author2=Liebowitz MR | title = Memory bias in panic disorder: An investigation of the cognitive avoidance hypothesis | journal = Cognitive Therapy and Research| year = 1991 | s2cid = 24229675}}</ref>
===Alzheimer's disease===
Modern studies show an increased effect of levels-of-processing in Alzheimer patients. Specifically, there is a significantly higher recall value for semantically encoded stimuli over physically encoded stimuli. In one such experiment, subjects maintained a higher recall value in words chosen by meaning over words selected by numerical order.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 6| issue = 8| pages = 583–588| last = Scott| first = L. C.|author2=G. K. Wright |author3=G. S. Rai |author4=A. N. Exton-Smith |author5=J. M. Gardiner | title = Further evidence of preserved memory function in Alzheimer's disease| journal = International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry| year = 1991| doi = 10.1002/gps.930060806| s2cid = 144360572}}</ref>
===Autism===
In autistic patients, levels-of-processing effects are reversed in that semantically presented stimuli have a lower recall value than physically presented stimuli. In one study, [[phonological]] and [[orthography|orthographic]] processing created higher recall value in word list-recall tests.<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = 40| issue = 7| pages = 964–969| last = Toichi| first = M |author2=Kamio Y | title = Long-term memory and levels-of-processing in autism| journal = Neuropsychologia | year = 2002 | doi = 10.1016/S0028-3932(01)00163-4| pmid = 11900748 | s2cid = 37972435}}</ref> Other studies have explicitly found non-semantically processed stimuli to be more accurately processed by autistic patients than in non-autistic patients.<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1093/brain/awh561| volume = 128| issue = 10| pages = 2430–2441| last = Bertone| first = A |author2=Mottron L |author3=Jelenic P |author4=Faubert J | title = Enhanced and diminished visuo-spatial information processing in autism depends on stimulus complexity| journal = Brain | date = 2005-10-01| url = http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/128/10/2430| format = abstract| pmid = 15958508| doi-access = free}}</ref> No clear conclusions have been drawn as to the cause of this oddity.
==References==
| |||