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Besides the Linux distributions designed for general-purpose use on desktops and servers, distributions may be specialized for different purposes including: [[computer architecture]] support, [[Embedded Linux|embedded systems]], stability, security, localization to a specific region or language, targeting of specific user groups, support for [[real-time computing|real-time]] applications, or commitment to a given desktop environment. Furthermore, some distributions deliberately include only [[free software]]. {{As of|2015}}, over four hundred Linux distributions are actively developed, with about a dozen distributions being most popular for general-purpose use.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://lwn.net/Distributions/ | title = The LWN.net Linux Distribution List | access-date = March 18, 2015 | publisher = [[LWN.net]] | url-status=live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150315001510/http://lwn.net/Distributions/ | archive-date = March 15, 2015 | df = mdy-all }}</ref>
[[File:Free and open-source-software display servers and UI toolkits.svg|thumb|upright=2.25|Visible software components of the Linux desktop stack include the [[display server]], [[widget engine]]s, and some of the more widespread [[widget toolkit]]s. There are also components not directly visible to end-users, including [[D-Bus]] and [[PulseAudio]].]]
{{See also|Desktop environment|Linux adoption#DESKTOP|l2=Linux adoption: Measuring desktop adoption|Criticism of desktop Linux}}
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The collaborative nature of free software development allows distributed teams to perform [[language localisation|language localization]] of some Linux distributions for use in locales where localizing proprietary systems would not be cost-effective. For example, the [[Sinhalese language]] version of the [[Knoppix]] distribution became available significantly before Microsoft translated [[Windows XP]] into Sinhalese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linuxquestions.org/questions/linux-news-59/introducing-sinhala-linux-237904-print/|title=Introducing sinhala linux|access-date=November 23, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124015221/http://www.linuxquestions.org/questions/linux-news-59/introducing-sinhala-linux-237904-print/|archive-date=November 24, 2015}}</ref> In this case the [[Lanka Linux User Group]] played a major part in developing the localized system by combining the knowledge of university professors, [[linguist]]s, and local developers.
The performance of Linux on the desktop has been a controversial topic;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/3320859/the-linux-desktop-with-great-success-comes-great-failure.html|title=The Linux desktop: With great success comes great failure |author=Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols|date=2018-11-13|access-date=2019-11-10}}</ref> for example in 2007 [[Con Kolivas]] accused the Linux community of favoring performance on servers. He quit Linux kernel development out of frustration with this lack of focus on the desktop, and then gave a "tell all" interview on the topic.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why I quit: kernel developer Con Kolivas|url=http://apcmag.com/node/6735/|access-date=August 15, 2011|date=July 24, 2007|work=APC Magazine|publisher=ACP Magazines|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110707151924/http://apcmag.com/why_i_quit_kernel_developer_con_kolivas.htm|archive-date = July 7, 2011}}</ref> Since then a significant amount of development has focused on improving the desktop experience. Projects such as [[systemd]] and [[Upstart (software)|Upstart]] (deprecated in 2014) aim for a faster boot time; the Wayland and Mir projects aim at replacing [[X11]] while enhancing desktop performance, security and appearance.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wayland.freedesktop.org/architecture.html |title=Wayland Architecture |access-date=January 5, 2013 |publisher=freedesktop.org |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130106152733/http://wayland.freedesktop.org/architecture.html |archive-date=January 6, 2013}}</ref>
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Many other types of applications available for Microsoft Windows and macOS also run on Linux. Commonly, either a [[free software]] application will exist which does the functions of an application found on another operating system, or that application will have a version that works on Linux, such as with [[Skype]] and some [[Linux gaming#Proprietary games|video games]] like ''[[Dota 2]]'' and ''[[Team Fortress 2]]''. Furthermore, the [[Wine (software)|Wine]] project provides a Windows compatibility layer to run unmodified Windows applications on Linux. It is sponsored by commercial interests including [[CodeWeavers]], which produces a commercial version of the software. Since 2009, Google has also provided funding to the Wine project.<ref>{{cite mailing list |last=Kegel |first=Dan |url=http://article.gmane.org/gmane.comp.emulators.wine.devel/56872 |title=Google's support for Wine in 2007 |date=February 14, 2008 |mailing-list=wine-devel |access-date=January 3, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090106202914/http://article.gmane.org/gmane.comp.emulators.wine.devel/56872 |archive-date=January 6, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://code.google.com/opensource/wine.html | title=Open Source Patches: Wine | access-date=September 7, 2008 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907021012/http://code.google.com/opensource/wine.html | archive-date=September 7, 2008 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> [[CrossOver]], a proprietary solution based on the open-source Wine project, supports running Windows versions of [[Microsoft Office]], [[Intuit]] applications such as [[Quicken]] and [[QuickBooks]], [[Adobe Photoshop]] versions through CS2, and many popular games such as ''[[World of Warcraft]]''. In other cases, where there is no Linux port of some software in areas such as [[desktop publishing]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freeos.com/articles/2540/ |title=Microsoft Office for Linux? |access-date=February 3, 2008 |last=Advani |first=Prakash |date=October 27, 2000 |work=FreeOS |publisher=FreeOS Technologies (I) Pvt. Ltd. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080220131703/http://www.freeos.com/articles/2540/ |archive-date=February 20, 2008 }}</ref> and [[professional audio]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://arstechnica.com/guides/tweaks/linux-audio.ars |title=Editing audio in Linux |access-date=February 3, 2008 |last=Smith-Heisters |first=Ian |date=October 11, 2005 |work=Ars Technica |publisher=Ars Technica, LLC |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080217222239/http://arstechnica.com/guides/tweaks/linux-audio.ars |archive-date=February 17, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.keyboardmag.com/article/linux-its-not/apr-07/27458 |title=Linux: It's Not Just For Computer Geeks Anymore |access-date=February 3, 2008 |last=Lumma |first=Carl |date=April 2007 |work=Keyboard Magazine |publisher=New Bay Media, LLC. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080209161733/http://www.keyboardmag.com/article/linux-its-not/apr-07/27458 |archive-date=February 9, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb04/articles/mirrorimage.htm |title=Using Linux For Recording & Mastering |access-date=February 3, 2008 |last=James |first=Daniel |date=February 2004 |work=Sound On Sound |publisher=SOS Publications Group |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517050638/http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb04/articles/mirrorimage.htm |archive-date=May 17, 2008}}</ref> there is equivalent software available on Linux. It is also possible to run applications written for [[Android OS|Android]] on other versions of Linux using [[Anbox]].
Besides externally visible components, such as [[X window manager]]s, a non-obvious but quite central role is played by the programs hosted by [[freedesktop.org]], such as [[D-Bus]] or [[PulseAudio]]; both major desktop environments (GNOME and KDE) include them, each offering graphical front-ends written using the corresponding toolkit ([[GTK]] or [[Qt (framework)|Qt]]). A [[display server]] is another component, which for the longest time has been communicating in the X11 display server protocol with its clients; prominent software talking X11 includes the [[X.Org Server]] and [[Xlib]]. Frustration over the cumbersome X11 core protocol, and especially over its numerous extensions, has led to the creation of a new display server protocol, [[Wayland (display server protocol)|Wayland]].
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Linux distributions have also become popular in the [[netbook]] market, with many devices such as the [[Asus Eee PC]] and [[Aspire One|Acer Aspire One]] shipping with customized Linux distributions installed.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/may/28/netbooks-sales | title=Are netbooks losing their shine? | access-date=June 2, 2010 | ___location=London | date=May 28, 2009 | work=The Guardian | first=Jack | last=Schofield | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131221110306/http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2009/may/28/netbooks-sales | archive-date=December 21, 2013 | df=mdy-all }}</ref>
In 2009, Google announced its [[Chrome OS]] as a minimal Linux-based operating system, using the [[Chrome browser]] as the main user interface. Chrome OS initially did not run any non-web applications, except for the bundled file manager and media player. A certain level of support for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] applications was added in later versions.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2009/07/introducing-google-chrome-os.html|title = Introducing the Google Chrome OS|date = July 7, 2009|access-date = June 12, 2014|website = Official Google Blog|publisher = [[Blogger (service)|Blogger]]|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120410044457/http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2009/07/introducing-google-chrome-os.html|archive-date = April 10, 2012|df = mdy-all}}</ref> As of 2018, Google added the ability to install any Linux software in a container,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.google.com/chromebook/answer/9145439?hl=en|title=Set up Linux (Beta) on your Chromebook - Chromebook Help|website=support.google.com}}</ref> enabling Chrome OS to be used like any other Linux distribution. Netbooks that shipped with the operating system, termed [[Chromebooks]], started appearing on the market in June 2011.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.cnet.com/news/first-take-samsung-series-5-chromebook-the-future-of-netbooks-hands-on-video/|title = First Take: Samsung Series 5 Chromebook, the future of Netbooks?|last = Stein|first = Scott|date = May 11, 2011|work = Journal|access-date = June 12, 2014|publisher = [[CNET]]|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140714192627/http://www.cnet.com/news/first-take-samsung-series-5-chromebook-the-future-of-netbooks-hands-on-video/|archive-date = July 14, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref>
[[File:LAMP software bundle.svg|thumb|upright=2.25|Broad overview of the [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP software bundle]], displayed here together with [[Squid (software)|Squid]]. A high-performance and high-availability web server solution providing security in a hostile environment.]]
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Linux distributions are also dominant as [[operating system]]s for [[supercomputer]]s.<ref name="rules_supercomputers"/> As of November 2017, all supercomputers on the [[TOP500|500]] list run some variant of Linux.<ref name=top500stats>{{cite web |url=http://www.top500.org/statistics/details/osfam/1 |title=TOP500 Supercomputer Sites: Operating system Family / Linux |publisher=Top500.org|access-date=November 13, 2017}}</ref> <!-- Linux is also dominant on the [[Green500]] list. seems to be the same one, just rearranged.-->
[[File:Samsung Galaxy Note series 2.jpg|thumb|Android smartphones]]
[[File:Tesla Model S digital panels.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[In-car entertainment]] system of the [[Tesla Model S]] is based on [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]]<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.dragtimes.com/blog/tesla-model-s-ethernet-network-explored-possible-jailbreak-in-the-future | title=Tesla Model S Ethernet Network Explored | date=April 4, 2014 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409122552/http://www.dragtimes.com/blog/tesla-model-s-ethernet-network-explored-possible-jailbreak-in-the-future | archive-date=April 9, 2014 | df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.autoblog.com/2014/04/12/tesla-model-s-owners-hack-their-cars-find-ubuntu/|title=Tesla Model S owners hack their cars, find Ubuntu|website=Autoblog|access-date=January 28, 2019}}</ref>]]
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Another smartphone is the [[PinePhone]], made by the computer manufacturer [[Pine64]]. The PinePhone can run a variety of Linux-based operating systems such as Ubuntu Touch and [[postmarketOS]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Aufranc |first1=Jean-Luc |title=PinePhone "BraveHeart" Limited Edition Linux Smartphone is Now Available for $150 |url=https://www.cnx-software.com/2019/11/16/buy-pinephone-braveheart-limited-edition-linux-smartphone/ |website=CNX Software - Embedded Systems News |date=16 November 2019}}</ref>
{{See also|Embedded Linux|Linux devices}}
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For example, the popular [[TiVo]] digital video recorder also uses a customized Linux,<ref name="tivo">{{cite web | url = http://www.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp | title = TiVo ─ GNU/Linux Source Code |access-date=December 12, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519150730/http://www.tivo.com/linux/linux.asp |archive-date=May 19, 2007}}</ref> as do several network [[Firewall (computing)|firewalls]] and [[router (computing)|routers]] from such makers as [[Cisco]]/[[Linksys]]. The [[Korg OASYS]], the [[Korg KRONOS]], the [[Yamaha Motif#Motif XS|Yamaha Motif XS]]/Motif XF [[music workstation]]s,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mvista.com/downloads/Case_study_MontaVista_Linux_and_Yamaha.pdf |title=Case Study: How MontaVista Linux helped Yamaha developers make a great product greater |access-date=August 26, 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070925210353/http://www.mvista.com/downloads/Case_study_MontaVista_Linux_and_Yamaha.pdf |archive-date = September 25, 2007}}</ref> Yamaha S90XS/S70XS, Yamaha MOX6/MOX8 synthesizers, Yamaha Motif-Rack XS [[synthesizer|tone generator module]], and Roland RD-700GX [[digital piano]] also run Linux. Linux is also used in [[stage lighting]] control systems, such as the WholeHogIII console.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highend.com/products/controllers/Wholehog3Console.asp |title=Embedded Linux: FlyingPigs the WholeHogIII runs on Linux |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051013065306/http://www.highend.com/products/controllers/Wholehog3Console.asp |archive-date=October 13, 2005 }}</ref>
{{Main|Linux gaming}}
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In 2021, ProtonDB, an online aggregator of games supporting Linux, stated that 78% of the top thousand games on Steam were able to run on Linux using either [[Proton (software)|Proton]] or a native port.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ProtonDB homepage|url=https://www.protondb.com/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-27|website=www.protondb.com}}</ref>
Due to the flexibility, customizability and free and open-source nature of Linux, it becomes possible to highly tailor Linux towards a specific purpose. There are two main methods to assemble a specialized Linux distribution: building from scratch or from a general-purpose distribution as a base. The distributions often used for this purpose include [[Debian]], [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]], [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]] (which is itself based on Debian), [[Arch Linux]], [[Gentoo Linux|Gentoo]], and [[Slackware]]. In contrast, Linux distributions built from scratch do not have general-purpose bases; instead, they focus on the [[JeOS]] philosophy by including only necessary components and avoiding [[System resource|resource]] overhead caused by components considered redundant in the distribution's use cases.
A [[home theater PC]] (HTPC) is a PC that is mainly used as an entertainment system, especially a [[home theater system]]. It is normally connected to a television, and often an additional audio system.
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There are also special editions of Linux distributions that include the [[MythTV]] media center software, such as [[Mythbuntu]], a special edition of Ubuntu.
[[Kali Linux]] is a Debian-based Linux distribution designed for [[digital forensics]] and [[penetration test]]ing. It comes preinstalled with several software applications for penetration testing and identifying [[Exploit (computer security)|security exploits]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://docs.kali.org/introduction/what-is-kali-linux|title = What is Kali Linux?|access-date = June 13, 2014|website = Kali Linux|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140527164453/http://docs.kali.org/introduction/what-is-kali-linux|archive-date = May 27, 2014|df = mdy-all}}</ref> The Ubuntu derivative [[BackBox]] provides pre-installed security and network analysis tools for ethical hacking. <br />The Arch-based [[BlackArch]] includes over 2100 tools for pentesting and security researching.<ref name="blackarch">{{cite web|url=https://blackarch.org/index.html|title=BlackArch Linux - Penetration Testing Distribution|website=BlackArch Linux|access-date=April 1, 2019}}</ref>
There are many Linux distributions created with privacy, secrecy, network anonymity and information security in mind, including [[Tails (operating system)|Tails]], [[Tin Hat Linux]] and [[Tinfoil Hat Linux]]. [[Lightweight Portable Security]] is a distribution based on Arch Linux and developed by the [[United States Department of Defense]]. Tor-ramdisk is a minimal distribution created solely to host the network anonymity software [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]].
Linux [[Live CD]] sessions have long been used as a tool for recovering data from a broken computer system and for repairing the system. Building upon that idea, several Linux distributions tailored for this purpose have emerged, most of which use [[GParted]] as a partition editor, with additional data recovery and system repair software:
* [[Gparted live|GParted Live]]{{snd}} a Debian-based distribution developed by the GParted project.
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* [[SystemRescueCD]]{{snd}} an Arch-based distribution with support for editing Windows [[Windows Registry|registry]].
[[SpaceX]] uses multiple redundant [[:Category:Avionics computers|flight computers]] in a [[fault-tolerant design]] in its [[Falcon 9]] rocket. Each Merlin engine is controlled by three [[Voting logic|voting]] computers, with two physical processors per computer that constantly check each other's operation. Linux is not inherently fault-tolerant (no operating system is, as it is a function of the whole system including the hardware), but the flight computer software makes it so for its purpose.<ref name=aw20121118/> For flexibility, [[commercial off-the-shelf]] parts and system-wide "radiation-tolerant" design are used instead of [[radiation hardened]] parts.<ref name=aw20121118>{{cite news|last=Svitak |first=Amy |title=Dragon's "Radiation-Tolerant" Design |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/Blogs.aspx?plckBlogId=Blog%3a04ce340e-4b63-4d23-9695-d49ab661f385&plckPostId=Blog%3a04ce340e-4b63-4d23-9695-d49ab661f385Post%3aa8b87703-93f9-4cdf-885f-9429605e14df |access-date=November 22, 2012 |newspaper=Aviation Week |date=November 18, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203204735/http://www.aviationweek.com/Blogs.aspx?plckBlogId=Blog%3A04ce340e-4b63-4d23-9695-d49ab661f385&plckPostId=Blog%3A04ce340e-4b63-4d23-9695-d49ab661f385Post%3Aa8b87703-93f9-4cdf-885f-9429605e14df |archive-date=December 3, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> {{As of|July 2019}}, SpaceX has conducted over [[List of Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches|76 launches]] of the Falcon 9 since 2010, out of which all but one have successfully delivered their primary payloads to the intended [[orbit]], and has used it to transport astronauts to the [[International Space Station]]. The [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon 2]] crew capsule also uses Linux.<ref name="auto"/>
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</ref>
Linux distributions have been created to provide hands-on experience with coding and source code to students, on devices such as the [[Raspberry Pi]]. In addition to producing a practical device, the intention is to show students "how things work under the hood".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://radar.oreilly.com/2015/07/4-ways-the-raspberry-pi-is-being-used-in-education.html|title=4 ways the Raspberry Pi is being used in education|last=Blanchette|first=Megan|date=July 7, 2015|website=O'Reilly Radar|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910010507/http://radar.oreilly.com/2015/07/4-ways-the-raspberry-pi-is-being-used-in-education.html|archive-date=September 10, 2017|url-status=live|access-date=September 9, 2017}}</ref>
The Ubuntu derivatives [[Edubuntu]] and [[The Linux Schools Project]], as well as the Debian derivative [[Skolelinux]], provide education-oriented software packages. They also include tools for administering and building school computer labs and computer-based classrooms, such as the [[Linux Terminal Server Project]] (LTSP).
Instant WebKiosk and [[Webconverger]] are browser-based Linux distributions often used in web [[Interactive kiosk|kiosks]] and [[digital signage]]. [[Thinstation]] is a minimalist distribution designed for [[thin client]]s. [[Rocks Cluster Distribution]] is tailored for [[HPCC|high-performance computing clusters]].
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