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{{EngvarB|date=June 2021}}▼
{{Short description|Act of rehearsing a behaviour repeatedly}}
▲{{EngvarB|date=June 2021}}
'''Practice''' is the act of rehearsing a behaviour repeatedly, to help [[Learning|learn]] and eventually master a [[skill]]. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] "πρακτική" (''praktike''), feminine of "πρακτικός" (''praktikos''), "fit for or concerned with action, practical",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpraktiko%2Fs πρακτικός], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref> and that from the verb "πράσσω" (''prasso''), "to achieve, bring about, effect, accomplish".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpra%2Fssw πράσσω], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus Digital Library</ref>
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==Common types==
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[[File:Bio2.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[musician]] practising his instrument.]]
[[File:ANCOP officers.jpg|thumb|ANCOP officer cadets practise detaining an armed insurgent at the Mazar-e Sharif Regional Training Center on December 12, 2010.]]
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One of Ericsson's core findings was that how expert one becomes at a skill has more to do with how one practises than with merely performing a skill a large number of times. An expert breaks down the skills that are required to be expert and focuses on improving those skill chunks during practice or day-to-day activities, often paired with immediate coaching feedback. Another important feature of deliberate practice lies in continually practising a skill at more challenging levels with the intention of mastering it.<ref name="Mayer, R. E. 2008">Mayer, R. E. (2008). ''Learning and Instruction.'' Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.</ref> Deliberate practice is also discussed in the books ''Talent is Overrated'' by [[Geoff Colvin]]<ref>Geoff Colvin, ''Talent is Overrated: What Really Separates World-Class Performers from Everybody Else''</ref> and ''The Talent Code'' by Daniel Coyle,<ref>Daniel Coyle, ''The Talent Code: Greatness Isn't Born. It's Grown. Here's How''</ref> among others. This includes, ''Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance,'' by [[Angela Duckworth]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Grit : the power of passion and perseverance|last=Angela|first=Duckworth|date=3 May 2016|isbn=978-1501111105|oclc=953827740}}</ref> and ''Outliers: The Story of Success,'' by [[Malcolm Gladwell]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/outliersstoryofs00glad|title=Featured book review : Outliers.|last1=1963-|first1=Gladwell, Malcolm|last2=Summaries.|first2=Soundview Executive Book|date=2009-01-01|publisher=[Soundview Executive Book Summaries]|isbn=978-0316017923|oclc=605428328|url-access=registration}}</ref>
Ericsson also believes that some anatomical characteristics were believed to be fixed traits in the past. Genes rarely dictate what traits will be. However, her study has proven that the characteristics have the ability to change and adapt in response to intense practice over multiple years. Ericsson's statements on practice also support the 10 year rule. Ericsson believes that elite performance is the product of maximal effort over at least a decade. The maximal effort is described as using deliberate practice in order to improve performance.
Duckworth describes how deliberate practice affects education, motivation, and learning outcomes.<ref name=":1" /> In a presentation she gave at the American Educational Research Conference in 2014,<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.aera.net/Events-Meetings/Annual-Meeting/Previous-Annual-Meetings/2014-Annual-Meeting/2014-Annual-Meeting-Webcasts/-Noncognitive-Factors-Affecting-Student-Success|title=Noncognitive Factors Affecting Student Success|website=www.aera.net|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-25}}</ref> she spoke about the importance of grit – of students' focusing on material with which they struggle. In her view, grit allows a student to persevere and succeed in the face of adversity. Duckworth says that if a student can apply grit in their academic work, their effort will increase. Duckworth says that effort is equally important as talent in achieving academic goals. In a study she conducted at the National Spelling Bee in Washington, D.C, she found that the students who used the grit tactic tended to advance to the finals.<ref name=":2" />
Two recent articles in ''[[Current Directions in Psychological Science]]'' criticise deliberate practice and argue that, while it is necessary for reaching high levels of performance, it is not sufficient, with other factors such as talent being important as well.<ref>Guillermo Campitelli & [[Fernand Gobet]] (2011), ''Deliberate practice: Necessary but not sufficient.'' ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', 20, 280-285.</ref><ref>D. Zachary Hambrick & Elizabeth Meinz (2011), ''Limits on the predictive power of ___domain-specific experience and knowledge in skilled performance.'' ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', 20, 275-279.</ref> More recently, a meta-analysis found the correlation coefficient between deliberate practice and performance was 0.40, the size of which is large compared to other predictor variables (eg. obesity, excessive drinking, smoking, intelligence, adherence to effective medication).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Miller|first=Scott D.|title=To be or not to be (an expert)? Revisiting the role of deliberate practice and improving performance.|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13598139.2018.1519410|journal=High Ability Studies|year=2020|volume=31|issue=1|pages=5–15|doi=10.1080/13598139.2018.1519410|s2cid=149904631}}</ref> In addition, Malcolm Gladwell's point-of-view about deliberate practice is different from Ericsson's view. Gladwell, staff writer at ''The New Yorker'' magazine and author of five books on The New York Times Best Seller list including ''Outliers: The Story of Success'' said in a May 2016 Freakonomics podcast interview that, "He's [Ericsson] a hard practice guy, and I'm a soft practice guy." Gladwell claims that talent is important with an intentional dedication to practice and having a support system is vital to produce superior outcomes. It is not all about methodical effort as Ericsson claims. In Malcolm Gladwell's book, one chapter is called "The Matthew Effect." This effect describes how different biases can affect an individual's performance. When someone is practicing a skill, especially with deliberate practice, coaches play an important role in how their practices go. If a coach sets high expectations and encourages their learners, the individual is more likely to take more from practice and perform better. The role of coaches is important during deliberate practice. Coaches can strengthen desired behaviors through encouragement, positive reinforcement, and technical instruction. Fostering a positive learning environment through deliberate practice is key for all individuals involved. It is also important for coaches to lay out their practices with specific skill training, variable practice, and training open and closed skills. These factors lead to an intentional deliberate practice which ultimately leads to better learning and performance.
According to the American Psychological Association, the purpose of deliberate practice is to achieve high levels of expert performance.
== Characteristics of Deliberate Practice ==
Practice changes the human body physically and psychologically as it increases in skill level. Skills that are learned through deliberate practice are specific and time spent practicing is crucial for the individual. If an individual spent a short amount of time with high intensity during practice, they are not as likely to succeed as an individual with a long term committment to the practice and skill.
To be considered deliberate practice, the individual should be engaging in full concentration, authorities and coaches are giving feedback, the individual is analyzing the feedback, and then the individual repeats the skill and practice over and over. During the repititon, the individual is making refinements to what they need to correct according to their feedback.
== Rebuttal to the 10,000 hour rule ==
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==Motivation==
Learning is closely linked to practice and [[motivation]]. [[Cultural-historical psychology|Sociocultural theory]] applied to motivation of practice suggests that motivation resides not within the individual, but within the ___domain of social and cultural contexts united by shared action and activity. Thus, motivation to practice is not simply within the locus of the individual (see [[Motivation#Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation|Incentive theories: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation]]), but rather the locus is the activity and its specific contexts of which the individual is a participant.
Psychologist [[K. Anders Ericsson]] writes about motivation to practice. He creates a theoretical framework for acquisition of expert performance that discusses the issue of a lack of motivation to practice. He writes:<blockquote>Engagement in deliberate practice is not inherently motivating. Performers consider it instrumental in achieving further improvements in performance (the motivational constraint). The lack of inherent reward or enjoyment in practice as distinct from the enjoyment of the result (improvement) is consistent with the fact that individuals in a ___domain rarely initiate practice spontaneously.<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The motivational constraint, mentioned above, is important to consider as it is an important premise of Ericsson's theoretical framework for deliberate practice. He finds that because participating in deliberate practice is not motivating that individuals must be engaged and motivated to take part in improvement before deliberate practice can even take place.<ref name=":0" /> He talks about the success of children who were simply exposed to an activity for months by their parents in a fun way. These children displayed immense interest in continuing the activity, so the parents then began implanting deliberate practice. This came to be extremely successful, which Ericsson cites as proof that his theory works when put into action. He finds that children must have the passion to improve their skills before deliberate practice begins in order to really be successful.<ref name=":0" />
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Finally, the findings in the study also have implications for developing self-regulated behaviours in students. Initially, a medical student may need focused feedback from instructors; however, as they progress, they must develop the ability to self-assess.
In an article by Susan Howick, the idea of using mixed method practice in the medical field could be proven to be beneficial for practitioners and researchers.
== Deliberate Practice versus Physical Preparation ==
Preparatory activity is defined as "highly structured activities that (a) are most relevant for improving performance, (b) are cognitively effortful, and (c) have no immediate rewards."
==As maintenance==
Skills fade with non-use.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.wranx.com/what-is-skill-fade-and-how-to-combat-it/|title=SKILL FADE}}</ref> The phenomenon is often referred to as being "out of practice". Practice is therefore performed (on a regular basis) to keep skills and abilities honed. It is important to keep learners from reaching a burn out or exhaustion stage while learning and practicing. Spending a fair amount of time at practice is important when learning a new skill but taking time for mental and emotional health is just as important.
==See also==
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