Procedural memory: Difference between revisions

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{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}

'''Procedural memory''' is a type of [[implicit memory]] ([[Unconscious mind|unconscious]], [[long-term memory|long-term]] memory) which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without [[Consciousness|conscious]] awareness of these previous [[Experience|experiencesexperience]]s.

Procedural memory guides the processes we perform, and most frequently resides below the level of conscious awareness. When needed, procedural memories are automatically [[Recall (memory)|retrieved]] and utilized for execution of the integrated procedures involved in both [[Cognition|cognitive]] and [[motor skill]]s, from tying shoes, to reading, to flying an airplane. Procedural memories are accessed and used without the need for conscious control or attention.

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One model for understanding skill acquisition was proposed by [[Paul Fitts|Fitts]] (1954) and his colleagues. This model proposed the idea that learning was possible through the completion of various stages. The stages involved include:

* Cognitive phase<ref name="fits">{{cite journal | last1 = Fitts | first1 = P. M. | year = 1954 | title = The information capacity of the human motor system in controlling the amplitude of movement | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3087289229146fc344560478aac366e4977749c0| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology | volume = 47 | issue = 6| pages = 381–391 | doi=10.1037/h0055392 | pmid=13174710| s2cid = 501599 }}</ref><ref name="fits2">Fitts, P. M., Posner, M. I. (1967). Human Performance. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole</ref>

* Associative phase<ref name="fits"/><ref name="fits2"/>

* Autonomous phase (also called the procedural phase)<ref name="fits"/><ref name="fits2"/>

===Cognitive phase===

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===Alternative view: the "predictive cycle"===

Another model for understanding skill acquisition through procedural memory has been proposed by Tadlock (2005).<ref name="Tadlock">Tadlock, D.: Read Right! Coaching Your Child to Excellence in Reading by Dee Tadlock, Ph.D. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005</ref> The model is significantly different from Fitts' 1954 view in that it does not require conscious understanding of a skill's components. Rather, the learner is only required to maintain in conscious awareness a concept of the desired end result. Tadlock has applied the view successfully to reading remediation (Scott et al., 2010<ref name="Scott">Scott, C. et al.: Evaluation of Read Right in Omaha Middle and High Schools 2009–2010 by C. Scott, K. Nelsestuen, E. Autio, T. Deussen, M. Hanita</ref>). The stages involved include:

* Attempt

* Fail

* Implicitly analyze the result

* Implicitly decide how to change the next attempt so that success is achieved

The stages are repeated over and over until the learner builds or remodels the neural network to guide an activity appropriately and accurately without conscious thought. The context for this view is similar to how physical therapy works to help brain-injured patients recover lost functions. The patient maintains the desired end result (e.g., control over hand movement) while making repeated attempts, without conscious awareness of the neural activity required to make the hand move. The patient continues to make attempts until movement is achieved. In the case of brain injury, how much progress is made depends upon the extent of the injury and the "mental force" or "will power" applied by the individual. Most individuals with reading problems have brains unaffected by brain injury, but negatively affected by an undefined problem with early learning in the area of reading. Because the brain is otherwise healthy, Tadlock has used highly structured methods associated with the Predictive Cycle to successfully remediate individuals with mild to severe reading problems (including dyslexia).{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}

=== Practice and the power law of learning ===

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==Tests==

===Pursuit rotor task===

A device used to study visual-motor tracking skills and [[hand–eye coordination]] by requiring the participant to follow a moving object with a [[cursor (computers)|cursor]]<ref name="Cognitive Atlas">{{Cite web | url=http://www.cognitiveatlas.org | title=Cognitive Atlas}}</ref> or use a [[stylus]] to follow the target on a computer screen or a turntable.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://149.142.158.188/phenowiki/wiki/index.php/Pursuit_Rotor_Task |title=Archived copy |access-date=27 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927220537/http://149.142.158.188/phenowiki/wiki/index.php/Pursuit_Rotor_Task |archive-date=27 September 2013 }}</ref> With the computer screen version, the participant follows a dot on a circular path like the one shown below.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://peblblog.blogspot.com/2010/04/pursuit-rotor-task.html | title=PEBL Blog: The Pursuit Rotor Task| date=24 April 2010}}</ref> [[File:PursuitRotor.png|thumb|Screenshot of a computerized version of the pursuit rotor task.]]

The pursuit rotor task is a simple pure visual-motor tracking test that has consistent results within age groups.<ref name="Lang">{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/0191-8869(81)90025-8 | volume=2 | issue=3 | title=Learning and reminiscence in the pursuit rotor performance of normal and depressed subjects | journal=Personality and Individual Differences | pages=207–213 | year=1981 | last1 = Lang | first1 = Rudie J.}}</ref> This displays a measurement of procedural memory as well as demonstrates the participant's [[fine motor skill]]s. The pursuit rotor task tests the fine-motor skills which are controlled by the motor cortex illustrated by the green section below. [[File:Cerebral lobes.png|thumb]]<ref name="Allen">{{cite journal | last1 = Allen | first1 = J.S. | last2 = Anderson | first2 = S.W. | last3 = Castro-Caldas | first3 = A. | last4 = Cavaco | first4 = S. | last5 = Damasio | first5 = H. | year = 2004 | title = The scope of preserved procedural memory in amnesia | journal = Brain | volume = 127 | issue = 8| pages = 1853–67 | doi = 10.1093/brain/awh208 | pmid = 15215216 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The results are then calculated by the participant's time-on and time-off the object. Amnesic participants show no impairment in this motor task when tested at later trials. It does however seem to be affected by lack of sleep and drug use.<ref name="Dotto">{{cite journal | last1 = Dotto | first1 = L | year = 1996 | title = Sleep Stages, Memory and Learning | journal = Canadian Medical Association | volume = 154 | issue = 8| pages = 1193–6 | pmid = 8612256 | pmc = 1487644 }}</ref>

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==Expertise==

===Divided attention===

There are several factors that contribute to the exceptional performance of a skill: memory capacities,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chase | first1 = W. G. | last2 = Simon | first2 = H. A. | year = 1973 | title = Perception in chess | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 4 | pages = 55–81 | doi=10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2}}</ref><ref>Starkes, J. L., & Deakin, J. (1984). Perception in sport: A cognitive approach to skilled performance. In W. F. Straub & J. M. Williams (Eds.), Cognitive sport psychology (pp. 115–128). Lansing, MI: Sport Science Associates.</ref> knowledge structures,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chi | first1 = M. T. | last2 = Feltovich | first2 = P. J. | last3 = Glaser | first3 = R. | year = 1981 | title = Categorization and representation of physics problems by experts and novices | journal = Cognitive Science | volume = 5 | issue = 2| pages = 121–152 | doi=10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2| doi-access = free }}</ref> problem-solving abilities,<ref>Tenenbaum, G., & Bar-Eli, M. (1993). Decision-making in sport: A cognitive perspective. In R. N. Singer, M. Murphey, & L. K. Tennant (Eds.), Handbook of research on sport psychology (pp. 171–192). New York: Macmillan.</ref> and attentional abilities.<ref name="attention">{{cite journal | last1 = Beilock | first1 = S.L. | last2 = Carr | first2 = T.H. | last3 = MacMahon | first3 = C. | last4 = Starkes | first4 = J.L. | year = 2002 | title = When Paying Attention Becomes Counterproductive: Impact of Divided Versus Skill-Focused Attention on Novice and Experienced Performance of Sensorimotor Skills | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/3bbd5a432c08263b0bebcc888d9592ffe4bec50f| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied | volume = 8 | issue = 1| pages = 6–16 | doi=10.1037/1076-898x.8.1.6| pmid = 12009178 | s2cid = 15358285 }}</ref> They all play key roles, each with its own degree of importance based on the procedures and skills required, the context, and the intended goals of the performance. Using these individualized abilities to compare how experts and novices differ regarding both cognitive and sensorimotor skills has provided a wealth of insight into what makes an expert excellent, and conversely, what sorts of mechanisms novices lack. Evidence suggests that an often overlooked condition for skill excellence is attentional mechanisms involved in the effective utilization and deployment of procedural memory during the real-time execution of skills. Research suggests that early in skill learning, execution is controlled by a set of unintegrated procedural steps that are held in working memory and attended to one-by-one in a step-by-step fashion.<ref>Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref><ref name="Anderson, J. R. 1993">Anderson, J. R. (1993). Rules of mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref><ref>Proctor, R. W., & Dutta, A. (1995). Skill acquisition and human performance. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.</ref> The problem with this is that attention is a limited resource. Therefore, this step-by-step process of controlling task performance occupies attentional capacity which in turn reduces the performer's ability to focus on other aspects of the performance, such as decision making, fine motor-skills, self-monitoring of energy level and "seeing the field or ice or court". However, with practice, procedural knowledge develops, which operates largely outside of working memory, and thus allows for skills to be executed more automatically.<ref name="Anderson, J. R. 1993"/><ref name="Langer, E. 1979">{{cite journal | last1 = Langer | first1 = E. | last2 = Imber | first2 = G. | year = 1979 | title = When practice makes imperfect: Debilitating effects of overlearning | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 37 | issue = 11| pages = 2014–2024 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.37.11.2014| pmid = 521900 }}</ref> This, of course, has a very positive effect on overall performance by freeing the mind of the need to closely monitor and attend to the more basic, mechanical skills, so that attention can be paid to other processes.<ref name="attention"/>

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====Famous examples of choking====

{{See also|Choke (sports)}}

* 1996 Masters golf tournament, [[Greg Norman]] lost to [[Nick Faldo]]

* 1993 Wimbledon women's final, [[Jana Novotná]] lost to [[Steffi Graf]]

* 2011 Masters golf tournament, [[Rory McIlroy]] started the final day first, but dropped 8 shots in 3 holes at the turn.

* 2019 President's Trophy winning Tampa Bay Lightning swept by 8th seed Columbus Blue Jackets in round 1 of the NHL playoffs.

===Expertise-induced amnesia===

[[File:Sid the Kid.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sidney Crosby]] in Vancouver, playing for [[Canada men's national ice hockey team|Team Canada]]]]

This phenomenon is based on the assumption that reducing or diverting the amount of [[attention]] paid to material being encoded and stored will reduce the quality and quantity of the later retrieval of that material in a form that is explicit and reportable. So, if a well learned skill is stored as a procedural memory, and its retrieval and subsequent performance is mostly unconscious and automatic, there is evidence showing that the explicit recollection of what happened during the performance will be reduced.<ref name="choking"/> A recent example illustrates this concept nicely. Immediately following [[Sidney Crosby]]'s overtime goal against the USAUS, winning the [[2010 Olympic]] Gold Medal for Canada in men's ice hockey, a reporter with [[The Sports Network|TSN]] did an on-ice interview with Crosby: "Sid, if you can, just take us through how that goal went in?" Crosby replied: "I don't really remember, I just shot it – I think from around here. That's all I really remember. I think it went 5-hole, but, um, I didn't really see it to be honest."<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ctvolympics.ca/video/index.html?assetid=993f323f-81b4-408a-b20c-9efcfb161fa2 | title=Sports News, Opinion, Scores, Schedules}}</ref>

== Genetic influence ==

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==Anatomical structures==

===Striatum and basal ganglia===

{{detailsfurther|topic=the striatum|Striatum}}

{{detailsfurther|topic=the basal ganglia|Basal ganglia}}

[[File:Basal ganglia and related structures (2).svg|thumb|right|Basal ganglia (red) and related structures (blue) shown within the brain]]

The [[dorsolateral]] striatum is associated with the acquisition of habits and is the main neuronal cell nucleus linked to procedural memory. Connecting excitatory [[afferent nerve fiber]]s help in the regulation of activity in the basal ganglia circuit. Essentially, two parallel information processing pathways diverge from the striatum. Both acting in opposition to each other in the control of movement, they allow for association with other needed functional structures<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Alexander | first1 = GE | last2 = Crutcher | first2 = MD | year = 1990 | title = Functional architecture of basal ganglia circuits; neural substrates of parallel processing | journal = Trends Neurosci | volume = 13 | issue = 7| pages = 266–271 | doi=10.1016/0166-2236(90)90107-l | pmid=1695401| s2cid = 3990601 }}</ref> One pathway is direct while the other is indirect and all pathways work together to allow for a functional neural feedback loop. Many looping circuits connect back at the striatum from other areas of the brain; including those from the emotion-center linked limbic cortex, the reward-center linked [[ventral striatum]] and other important motor regions related to movement.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Haber | first1 = SN | last2 = Fudge | first2 = JL | last3 = McFarland | first3 = NR | year = 2000 | title = Striatonigrostriatal pathways in primates form an ascending spiral from the shell to the dorsolateral striatum | journal = J. Neurosci. | volume = 20 | issue = 6| pages = 2369–2382 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.20-06-02369.2000 | pmid = 10704511 | pmc = 6772499 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The main looping circuit involved in the motor skill part of procedural memory is usually called the cortex-basal ganglia-thalamus-cortex loop.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Parent | first1 = A | year = 1990 | title = Extrinsic connections of the basal ganglia | journal = Trends Neurosci | volume = 13 | issue = 7| pages = 254–258 | doi=10.1016/0166-2236(90)90105-j| pmid = 1695399 | s2cid = 3995498 }}</ref>

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Current understanding of brain anatomy and physiology suggests that striatal neural plasticity is what allows basal ganglia circuits to communicate between structures and to functionally operate in procedural memory processing.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kreitzer | first1 = AC | year = 2009 | title = Physiology and pharmacology of striatal neurons | journal = Annual Review of Neuroscience| volume = 32 | pages = 127–47 | doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.051508.135422| pmid = 19400717 }}</ref>

===Cerebellum===

{{detailsfurther|topic=the cerebellum|Cerebellum}}

[[File:Cerebellum.png|thumb|right|The cerebellum is highlighted red]]

The [[cerebellum]] is known to play a part in correcting movement and in fine-tuning the motor agility found in procedural skills such as painting, instrument playing and in sports such as golf. Damage to this area may prevent the proper relearning of motor skills and through associated research it has more recently been linked to having a role in automating the unconscious process used when learning a procedural skill.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Saywell | first1 = N | last2 = Taylor | first2 = D | date = Oct 2008 | title = The role of the cerebellum in procedural learning – are there implications for physiotherapists' clinical practice?. | journal = Physiotherapy: Theory and Practice | volume = 24 | issue = 5| pages = 321–8 | doi=10.1080/09593980701884832| pmid = 18821439 | s2cid = 205654506 }}</ref> New thoughts in the scientific community suggest that the cerebellar cortex holds the holy grail of memory, what is known to researchers as "[[the engram]]" or the biological place where memory lives. The initial memory trace is thought to form here between parallel fibers and [[Purkinje cells|Purkinje cell]] and then travel outwards to other cerebellar nuclei for consolidation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nagao | first1 = S | last2 = Kitazawa | first2 = H | year = 2008 | title = Role of the cerebellum in the acquisition and consolidation of motor memory | journal = Brain Nerve | volume = 60 | issue = 7| pages = 783–90 | pmid = 18646618 }}</ref>

===Limbic system===

{{detailsfurther|topic=the limbic system|Limbic system}}

The [[limbic system]] is a group of unique brain areas that work together in many interrelated processes involved in emotion, motivation, learning and memory. Current thinking indicates that the limbic system shares anatomy with a component of the neostriatum already credited with the major task of controlling procedural memory. Once thought to be functionally separate, this vital section of the brain found on the striatum's back border has only recently been linked to memory and is now being called the marginal division zone (MrD).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Shu | first1 = S.Y. | last2 = Bao | first2 = X.M. | last3 = Li | first3 = S.X. | last4 = Chan | first4 = W.Y. | last5 = Yew | first5 = D. | year = 2000 | title = A New Subdivision, Marginal Division, in the Neostriatum of the Monkey Brain | journal = Biomedical and Life Sciences | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 231–7 | doi = 10.1023/a:1007523520251 | pmid = 10786707 | s2cid = 11876741 }}</ref> A special membrane protein associated with the limbic system is said to concentrate in related structures and to travel towards the basal nuclei. To put things simply, the activation of brain regions that work together during procedural memory can be followed because of this limbic system associated membrane protein and its application in molecular and [[immunohistochemistry]] research.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yun Shu | first1 = Si | last2 = Min Bao | first2 = Xin | last3 = Ning | first3 = Qun | last4 = Ming Wu | first4 = Yong | last5 = Wang | first5 = Jun | last6 = Leonard | first6 = Brian E. | year = 2003 | title = New component of the limbic system; Marginal division of the neostriatum that links the limbic system to the basal nucleus of Meynert | journal = Journal of Neuroscience Research | volume = 71 | issue = 5| pages = 751–757 | doi=10.1002/jnr.10518| pmid = 12584733 | s2cid = 21343863 }}</ref>

==Physiology==

===Dopamine===

{{detailsfurther|topic=dopamine|Dopamine}}

[[File:Dopamine Pathways.png|thumb|right|Dopamine Pathways in the brain highlighted in Blue]]

[[Dopamine]] is one of the more known neuromodulators involved in procedural memory. Evidence suggests that it may influence neural plasticity in memory systems by adapting brain processing when the environment is changing and an individual is then forced to make a behavioural choice or series of rapid decisions. It is very important in the process of "adaptive navigation", which serves to help different brain areas respond together during a new situation that has many unknown stimuli and features.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mizumori | first1 = SJ | last2 = Puryear | first2 = CB | last3 = Martig | first3 = AK | date = Apr 2009 | title = Basal ganglia contributions to adaptive navigation | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/178d090cf12f5228b4db2aa08208bcfb1482b02c| journal = Behav. Brain Res. | volume = 199 | issue = 1| pages = 32–42 | doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2008.11.014| pmid = 19056429 | s2cid = 2934467 }}</ref> Dopamine pathways are dispersed all over the brain and this allows for parallel processing in many structures all at the same time. Currently most research points to the [[Mesocortical pathway|mesocorticolimbic]] dopamine pathway as the system most related to reward learning and psychological conditioning.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Zellner | first1 = MR | last2 = Rinaldi | first2 = R | year = 2009 | title = How conditioned stimuli acquire the ability to activate VTA dopamine cells; A proposed neurobiological component of reward-related learning | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e1c3bddf2fbca3ca33cdf956ac96afa5c13fe10e| journal = Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. | volume = 34| issue = 5| pages = 769–780| doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.011| pmid = 19914285 | s2cid = 23468580 }}</ref>

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==Disorders==

Disorders have been important for the understanding of memory systems. The memory abilities and inhibitions of patients suffering fromwith various diseases played a major role in establishing the distinction that long -term memory consists of different types of memory, more specifically declarative memory and procedural memory. Furthermore, they have been important for illuminating the structures of the brain that comprise the neural network of procedural memory.

===Alzheimer's disease and dementia===

{{detailsfurther|topic=Alzheimer's disease|Alzheimer's}}

{{detailsfurther|topic=dementia|Dementia}}

{{multiple image

| width = 100

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===Tourette syndrome===

{{detailsfurther|topic=Tourette syndrome|Tourette syndrome}}

This disease of the central nervous system, like many other procedural-memory related disorders, involves changes in the associated subcortical brain area known as the striatum. This area and the brain circuits closely interacting with it from the basal ganglia are affected both structurally and at a more functional level in the people affected by [[Tourette's syndrome]]. Current literature on this topic provides evidence for there being many unique forms of procedural memory. The one most relevant to procedural memory and most common in Tourette's is related to the skill-acquisition process that ties stimuli to response during the learning part of procedural memory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Marsh | first1 = R | last2 = Alexander | first2 = GM | last3 = Packard | first3 = MG | last4 = Zhu | first4 = H | last5 = Peterson | first5 = BS | year = 2005 | title = Perceptual-motor skill learning in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Evidence for multiple procedural learning and memory systems | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0afcdec2a12b0b52bd503da17c006fd921a3c15a| journal = Neuropsychologia | volume = 43 | issue = 10| pages = 1456–65 | doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.12.012 | pmid=15989936| s2cid = 43393976 }}</ref>

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===Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)===

{{detailsfurther|topic=human immunodeficiency virus|HIV}}

Neural systems used by procedural memory are commonly targeted by [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]]; the striatum being the structure most notably affected.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Reger | first1 = M | last2 = Welsh | first2 = R | last3 = Razani | first3 = J | last4 = Martin | first4 = DJ | last5 = Boone | first5 = KB | year = 2002 | title = A meta-analysis of the neuropsychological sequelae of HIV infection | journal = Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society | volume = 8 | issue = 3| pages = 410–424 | doi=10.1017/s1355617702813212| pmid = 11939699 | s2cid = 30520253 }}</ref> MRI studies have even shown white matter irregularity and basal ganglia subcortical atrophy in these vital areas necessary for both procedural memory and motor-skill.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chang | first1 = L | last2 = Lee | first2 = PL | last3 = Yiannoutsos | first3 = CT | last4 = Ernst | first4 = T | last5 = Marra | first5 = CM | last6 = Richards | first6 = T | display-authors = etal | year = 2004 | title = A multicenter in vivo proton-MRS study of HIV-associated dementia and its relationship to age | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f773811cd3929a13639cb15fa8cedcf5f0e01212| journal = NeuroImage | volume = 23 | issue = 4| pages = 1336–1347 | doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.067 | pmid=15589098| s2cid = 2664814 }}</ref> Applied research using various procedural memory tasks such as the Rotary pursuit, Mirror star tracing and Weather prediction tasks have shown that HIV positive individuals perform worse than HIV negative participants suggesting that poorer overall performance on tasks is due to the specific changes in the brain caused by the disease.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gonzalez | first1 = R | last2 = Jacobus | first2 = J | last3 = Amatya | first3 = AK | last4 = Quartana | first4 = PJ | last5 = Vassileva | first5 = J | last6 = Martin | first6 = EM | year = 2008 | title = Deficits in complex motor functions, despite no evidence of procedural learning deficits, among HIV+ individuals with history of substance dependence | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 22 | issue = 6| pages = 776–86 | doi=10.1037/a0013404| pmid = 18999351 | pmc = 2630709 }}</ref>

===Huntington's disease===

{{detailsfurther|topic=Huntington's disease|Huntington's disease}}

[[File:Huntington.jpg|thumb|left|Coronal FSPGR through the brain of Huntington's patient]]

Despite being a disorder that directly affects striatal areas of the brain used in procedural memory, most individuals with [[Huntington's disease]] don't display the same memory problems as other people with striatum related brain diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sprengelmeyer | first1 = R | last2 = Canavan | first2 = AG | last3 = Lange | first3 = HW | last4 = Hömberg | first4 = V | date = Jan 1995 | title = Associative learning in degenerative neostriatal disorders: contrasts in explicit and implicit remembering between Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases | journal = Mov Disord | volume = 10 | issue = 1| pages = 51–65 | doi=10.1002/mds.870100110| pmid = 7885356 | s2cid = 38578307 }}</ref> In more advanced stages of the disease, however, procedural memory is affected by damage to the important brain pathways that help the inner subcortical and prefrontal cortex parts of the brain to communicate.<ref>Saint-Cyr JA, Taylor AE, Lang AE. (1988) "Procedural learning and neostriatal dysfunction in man" ''Brain'' 1988 Aug;111 ( Pt 4):941-59.</ref>

===Obsessive compulsive disorder===

{{detailsfurther|topic=obsessive–compulsive disorder|OCD}}

Neuroimaging studies show that [[OCD]] patients perform considerably better on procedural memory tasks because of noticeable over-activation of the striatum brain structures, specifically the frontostriatal circuit. These studies suggest that procedural memory in OCD patients is unusually improved in the early learning stages of procedural memory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Roth | first1 = RM | last2 = Baribeau | first2 = J | last3 = Milovan | first3 = D | last4 = O'Connor | first4 = K | last5 = Todorov | first5 = C | date = Sep 2004 | title = Procedural and declarative memory in obsessive-compulsive disorder | journal = J Int Neuropsychol Soc | volume = 10 | issue = 5| pages = 647–54 | doi=10.1017/s1355617704105018| pmid = 15327712 | s2cid = 29064519 }}</ref> Individuals with OCD do not perform significantly different on procedural working memory tasks than healthy controls.<ref name="Shahar 197–204"/>

===Parkinson's disease===

{{detailsfurther|topic=Parkinson's disease|Parkinson's disease}}

[[Parkinson's disease]] is known to affect selective areas in the frontal lobe area of the brain. Current scientific information suggests that the memory performance problems notably shown in patients are controlled by unusual frontostriatal circuits.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sarazin | first1 = M | last2 = Deweer | first2 = B | last3 = Pillon | first3 = B | last4 = Merkl | first4 = A | last5 = Dubois | first5 = B | date = Dec 2001 | title = Procedural learning and Parkinson disease: implication of striato-frontal loops | journal = Rev Neurol | volume = 157 | issue = 12| pages = 1513–8 | pmid = 11924447 }}</ref> Parkinson's patients often have difficulty with the sequence-specific knowledge that is needed in the acquisition step of procedural memory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Muslimovic | first1 = D | last2 = Post | first2 = B | last3 = Speelman | first3 = JD | last4 = Schmand | first4 = B | date = Nov 2007 | title = Motor procedural learning in Parkinson's disease | journal = Brain | volume = 130 | issue = 11| pages = 2887–97 | doi=10.1093/brain/awm211| pmid = 17855374 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Further evidence suggests that the frontal lobe networks relate to executive function and only act when specific tasks are presented to the patient. This tells us that the frontostriatal circuits are independent but able to work collaboratively with other areas of the brain to help with various things such as paying attention or focusing.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sarazin | first1 = M | last2 = Deweer | first2 = B | last3 = Merkl | first3 = A | last4 = Von Poser | first4 = N | last5 = Pillon | first5 = B | last6 = Dubois | first6 = B | date = Mar 2002 | title = Procedural learning and striatofrontal dysfunction in Parkinson's disease | journal = Mov Disord | volume = 17 | issue = 2| pages = 265–73 | doi=10.1002/mds.10018| pmid = 11921111 | s2cid = 32165795 }}</ref>

===Schizophrenia===

{{detailsfurther|topic=schizophrenia|Schizophrenia}}

MRI studies have shown that [[schizophrenic]] patients not currently taking related medication have a smaller putamen; part of the striatum that plays a very important role in procedural memory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lang | first1 = DJ | last2 = Kopala | last3 = Smith | first3 = GN | display-authors = etal | year = 1999 | title = MRI study of basal ganglia volumes in drug-naive first-episode patients with schizophrenia | journal = Schizophr Res | volume = 36 | page = 202 }}</ref> Further studies on the brain reveal that schizophrenics have improper basal ganglia communication with the surrounding extrapyramidal system that is known to be closely involved with the motor system and in the coordination of movement.<ref>A Chatterjee, M Chakos, A Koreen, S Geisler, B Sheitman, M Woerner, JM Kane J Alvir and Ja (1995). "Prevalence and clinical correlates of extrapyramidal signs and spontaneous dyskinesia in never-medicated schizophrenic patients" ''Am J Psychiatry'' 1995 Dec; 152 (12); 1724-9.</ref> The most recent belief is that functional problems in the striatum of schizophrenic patients are not significant enough to seriously impair procedural learning, however, research shows that the impairment will be significant enough to cause problems improving performance on a task between practice intervals.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schérer | first1 = H | last2 = Stip | first2 = E | last3 = Paquet | first3 = F | last4 = Bédard | first4 = MA | date =Winter 2003 | title = Mild procedural learning disturbances in neuroleptic-naive patients with schizophrenia | journal = Journal of Neuropsychiatry| volume = 15 | issue = 1| pages = 58–63 | doi=10.1176/appi.neuropsych.15.1.58| pmid = 12556572 }}</ref>

==Drugs==

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===Alcohol===

{{detailsfurther|topic=alcohol|Alcohol beverage}}

{{detailsfurther|topic=the effects of alcohol on memory|Effect of Alcohol on Memory}}

While the [[Alcohol (drug)|effects of alcohol]] have been studied immensely, even with respect to memory, there is limited research examining the effects of alcohol on procedural memory. Research conducted by Pitel A. L. et al. suggests that alcoholism impairs the ability to acquire semantic concepts. In this study, while semantic concepts were understood, procedural memory was often not automated. A potential reason for this finding is that poor learning strategies are used by alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Pitel | first1 = A. L. | last2 = Witkowski | first2 = T. | last3 = Vabret | first3 = F. | last4 = Guillery-Girard | first4 = B. | last5 = Desgranges | first5 = B. | last6 = Eustache | first6 = F. | last7 = Beaunieux | first7 = H. | year = 2007 | title = Effect of episodic and working memory impairments on semantic and cognitive procedural learning at alcohol treatment entry | url = http://www.hal.inserm.fr/inserm-00142890/file/Pitel_et_al_ACER_2007.pdf| journal = Alcohol Clin Exp Res | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 238–48 | doi=10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00301.x| pmid = 17250615 }}</ref>

===Cocaine===

{{detailsfurther|topic=cocaine|Cocaine}}

It is evident that long-term [[cocaine]] abuse alters brain structures. Research has shown that the brain structures that are immediately affected by long-term cocaine abuse include: cerebral [[hypoperfusion]] in the frontal, periventricular and temporal-parietal.<ref name="cocaine abuse">{{cite journal | last1 = Strickland | first1 = T. L. | last2 = Mena | first2 = I. | last3 = Villanueva-Meyer | first3 = J. | last4 = Miller | first4 = B. L. | last5 = Cummings | first5 = J. | last6 = Mehringer | first6 = C. M. | last7 = Satz | first7 = P. | last8 = Myers | first8 = H. | year = 1993 | title = Cerebral perfusion and neuropsychological consequences of chronic cocaine use | journal = The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences| volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 419–427 | doi=10.1176/jnp.5.4.419| pmid = 8286941 }}</ref> These structures play a role in various memory systems. Furthermore, the drug cocaine elicits its desirable effects by blocking the DRD1 dopamine receptors in the striatum, resulting in increased dopamine levels in the brain.<ref name="cocaine abuse"/> These receptors are important for the consolidation of procedural memory. These increased dopamine levels in the brain resultant of cocaine use is similar to the increased dopamine levels in the brain found in schizophrenics.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Serper | first1 = M. R. | last2 = Bermanc | first2 = A. | last3 = Copersinoa | first3 = M. L. | last4 = Choub | first4 = J. C. Y. | last5 = Richarmea | first5 = D. | last6 = Cancrob | first6 = R. | year = 2000 | title = Learning and memory impairment in cocaine-dependent and comorbid schizophrenic patients | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 93 | issue = 1| pages = 21–32 | doi=10.1016/s0165-1781(99)00122-5| pmid = 10699225 | s2cid = 44527373 }}</ref> Studies have compared the common memory deficits caused by both cases to further understand the neural networks of procedural memory. To learn more about the effects of dopamine and its role in schizophrenia see: [[dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia]]. Studies using rats have shown that when rats are administered trace amounts of cocaine, their procedural memory systems are negatively impacted. Specifically, the rats are unable to effectively consolidate motor-skill learning.<ref>Willuhn I, Steiner H. (2008) Motor-skill learning in a novel running-wheel task is dependent on D1 dopamine receptors in the striatum. ''Neuroscience'', 22 April; 153 (1); 249-58. Epub 2008 Feb 6.</ref> With cocaine abuse being associated with poor procedural learning, research has shown that abstinence from cocaine is associated with sustained improvement of motor-skill learning (Wilfred et al.).

===Psychostimulants===

{{detailsfurther|topic=psychostimulants|Psychostimulant}}

Most [[psychostimulant]]s work by activating dopamine receptors causing increased focus or pleasure. The usage of psychostimulants has become more widespread in the medical world for treating conditions like [[ADHD]]. Psychostimulants have been shown to be used more frequently today amongst students and other social demographics as a means to study more efficiently or have been abused for their pleasurable side effects.<ref>McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., Wechsler, H. (2004). Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US

college students: prevalence and correlates from anational survey. Research Report.</ref> Research suggests that when not abused, psychostimulants aid in the acquisition of procedural learning. Studies have shown that psychostimulants like [[d-amphetamine]] facilitates lower response times and increased procedural learning when compared to control participants and participants who have been administered the [[antipsychotics|antipsychotic]] [[haloperidol]] on procedural learning tasks.<ref>Kumari, V., Gray, J.A., Corr, P.J., Mulligan, O.F., Cotter, P.A., Checkley, S.A. (1997). Effects of acute administration of d-amphetamine and haloperidol on procedural learning in man. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology'' 129(3); 271–276</ref> While improvements in procedural memory were evident when participants were administered traces of psychostimulants, many researchers have found that procedural memory is hampered when psychostimulants are abused.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Toomey | first1 = R. | last2 = Lyons | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Eisen | first3 = S. A. | last4 = Xian | first4 = Hong | last5 = Chantarujikapong | first5 = Sunanta | last6 = Seidman | first6 = L. J. | last7 = Faraone | first7 = S. | last8 = Tsuang | first8 = M. T. | year = 2003 | title = A Twin Study of the Neuropsychological Consequences of Stimulant Abuse | journal = Arch Gen Psychiatry | volume = 60 | issue = 3| pages = 303–310 | doi=10.1001/archpsyc.60.3.303| pmid = 12622664 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This introduces the idea that for optimal procedural learning, dopamine levels must be balanced.

==Sleep==

Practice is clearly an important process for learning and perfecting a new skill. With over 40 years of research, it is well established in both humans and animals that the formation of all forms of memory are greatly enhanced during the brain-state of sleep. Furthermore, with humans, sleep has been consistently shown to aid in the development of procedural knowledge by the ongoing process of memory consolidation, especially when sleep soon follows the initial phase of memory acquisition.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Karni | first1 = A. | last2 = Tanne | first2 = D. | last3 = Rubenstein | first3 = B.S. | last4 = Askenasy | first4 = J.J. | last5 = Sagi | first5 = D. | year = 1994 | title = Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill | journal = Science | volume = 265 | issue = 5172| pages = 679–682 | doi=10.1126/science.8036518| pmid = 8036518 | bibcode = 1994Sci...265..679K }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gais | first1 = S. | last2 = Plihal | first2 = W. | last3 = Wagner | first3 = U. | last4 = Born | first4 = J. | year = 2000 | title = Early sleep triggers memory for early visual discrimination skills | journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 3 | issue = 12| pages = 1335–1339 | doi=10.1038/81881| pmid = 11100156 | s2cid = 2075857 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stickgold | first1 = R. | last2 = James | first2 = L. | last3 = Hobson | first3 = J.A. | year = 2000a | title = Visual discrimination learning requires sleep after training | journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 3 | issue = 12| pages = 1237–1238 | doi=10.1038/81756| pmid = 11100141 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stickgold | first1 = R. | last2 = Whidbee | first2 = D. | last3 = Schirmer | first3 = B. | last4 = Patel | first4 = V. | last5 = Hobson | first5 = J.A. | year = 2000b | title = Visual discrimination task improvement: A multi-step process occurring during sleep | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/f635eb5e63eff7dc17c1b0b9548f80b1b35b76cf| journal = J. Cogn. Neurosci. | volume = 12 | issue = 2| pages = 246–254 | doi=10.1162/089892900562075| pmid = 10771409 | s2cid = 37714158 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Walker | first1 = M.P. | last2 = Brakefield | first2 = T. | last3 = Morgan | first3 = A. | last4 = Hobson | first4 = J.A. | last5 = Stickgold | first5 = R. | year = 2002 | title = Practice with sleep makes perfect: Sleep dependent motor skill learning | journal = Neuron | volume = 35 | issue = 1| pages = 205–211 | doi=10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00746-8 | pmid=12123620| s2cid = 7025533 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Memory consolidation is a process that transforms novel memories from a relatively fragile state to a more robust and stable condition. For a long time it was believed that the consolidation of procedural memories took place solely as a function of time,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brashers-Krug | first1 = T. | last2 = Shadmehr | first2 = R. | last3 = Bizzi | first3 = E. | year = 1996 | title = Consolidation in human motor memory | journal = Nature | volume = 382 | issue = 6588| pages = 252–255 | doi=10.1038/382252a0| pmid = 8717039 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.39.3383 | bibcode = 1996Natur.382..252B | s2cid = 4316225 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = McGaugh | first1 = J.L. | year = 2000 | title = Memory—A century of consolidation | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/4599cc62e637a5619b3f9ee8dd2326d7288cbb1c| journal = Science | volume = 287 | issue = 5451| pages = 248–251 | doi=10.1126/science.287.5451.248 | pmid=10634773| bibcode = 2000Sci...287..248M | s2cid = 40693856 }}</ref> but more recent studies suggest, that for certain forms of learning, the consolidation process is exclusively enhanced during periods of sleep.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fischer | first1 = S. | last2 = Hallschmid | first2 = M. | last3 = Elsner | first3 = A.L. | last4 = Born | first4 = J. | year = 2002 | title = Sleep forms memory for finger skills | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 99 | issue = 18| pages = 11987–11991 | doi=10.1073/pnas.182178199| pmid = 12193650 | pmc = 129381 | bibcode = 2002PNAS...9911987F | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, it is important to note that not just any type of sleep is sufficient to improve procedural memory and performance on subsequent procedural tasks. In fact, within the ___domain of motor skill, there is evidence showing that no improvement on tasks is shown following a short, [[non-rapid eye movement]] (NREM; stages 2–4) sleep, such as a nap.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Siegel | first1 = J. M. | year = 2001 | title = The REM sleep-memory consolidation hypothesis | journal = Science | volume = 294 | issue = 5544| pages = 1058–1063 | doi=10.1126/science.1063049| pmid = 11691984 | pmc = 8760621 | bibcode = 2001Sci...294.1058S | s2cid = 2214566 }}</ref> [[REM sleep]] following a period of [[slow-wave sleep]] (SWS; combined stage 3 and 4 and the deepest form of NREM sleep), has shown to be the most beneficial type of sleep for procedural memory enhancement, especially when it takes place immediately after the initial acquisition of a skill. So essentially, a full night (or day) of uninterrupted sleep soon after learning a skill will allow for the most memory consolidation possible. Furthermore, if REM sleep is disrupted, there is no gain in procedural performance shown.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Karni | first1 = A. | last2 = Meyer | first2 = G. | last3 = Rey-Hipolito | first3 = C. | last4 = Jezzard | first4 = P. | last5 = Adams | first5 = M.M. | last6 = Turner | first6 = R. | last7 = Ungerleider | first7 = L.G. | year = 1998 | title = The acquisition of skilled motor performance: Fast and slow experience-driven changes in primarymotor cortex | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA | volume = 95 | issue = 3| pages = 861–868 | doi=10.1073/pnas.95.3.861| pmid = 9448252 | pmc = 33809 | bibcode = 1998PNAS...95..861K | doi-access = free }}</ref> However, equal improvement will take place whether the sleep after practice was at night or during the daytime, as long as SWS is followed by REM sleep. It has also been shown that the enhancement in memory is specific to the learned stimulus (i.e., learning a running technique will not cross over to improvements in biking performance).<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mednick | first1 = S.C. | display-authors = etal | year = 2003 | title = Sleep-dependent learning: a nap is as good as a night | url = https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/ee698a6866fc21686c4e6798f0c3dbc13e568d2d| journal = Nat. Neurosci. | volume = 6 | issue = 7| pages = 697–698 | doi=10.1038/nn1078 | pmid=12819785| s2cid = 16348039 }}</ref> Subject performance in the Wff 'n Proof Task,<ref>Smith C. REM sleep and learning: some recent findings. In: Moffit A, Kramer M, Hoffman H, editors. The functions of dreaming. Albany:SUNY; 1993.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = C | last2 = Fazekas | first2 = A | year = 1997 | title = Amount of REM sleep and Stage 2 sleep required for efficient learning | journal = Sleep Res | volume = 26 | page = 690 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = C | last2 = Weeden | first2 = K | year = 1990 | title = Post training REMs coincident auditory stimulation enhances memory in humans | journal = Psychiatr J Univ Ott | volume = 15 | issue = 2| pages = 85–90 | pmid = 2374793 }}</ref> the [[Tower of Hanoi]],<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = CT | last2 = Nixon | first2 = MR | last3 = Nader | first3 = RS | year = 2004 | title = Post training increases in REM sleep intensity implicate REM sleep in memory processing and provide a biological marker of learning potential | journal = Learn Mem | volume = 11 | issue = 6| pages = 714–9 | doi=10.1101/lm.74904| pmid = 15576889 | pmc = 534700 }}</ref> and the Mirror Tracing Task<ref>Conway J, Smith C. REM sleep and learning in humans: a sensitivity to specific types of learning tasks. In: Proceedings of the 12th Congress of the European Sleep Research Society. 1994.</ref> has been found to improve following REM sleep periods.

Whether a skill is learned explicitly (with [[attention]]) or implicitly, each plays a role in the offline consolidation effect. Research suggests that explicit awareness and understanding of the skill being learned during the acquisition process greatly improves the consolidation of procedural memories during sleep.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Robertson | first1 = E.M. | display-authors = etal | year = 2004 | title = Awareness modifies skill-learning benefits of sleep | journal = Curr. Biol. | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 208–212 | doi=10.1016/s0960-9822(04)00039-9| pmid = 14761652 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This finding is not surprising, as it is widely accepted that intention and awareness at time of learning enhances the acquisition of most forms of memory.

==Language==

Language works because of the brain’sbrain's ability to retrieve pieces of information from memory and then combine those pieces into a larger, more complex unit based on context. The latter part of this process is called unification.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hagoort | first1 = Peter | title = MUC (Memory, Unification, Control) and beyond | journal = Frontiers in Psychology | volume = 4 | year = 2013 | pages = 416 | doi = 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00416| pmid = 23874313 | pmc = 3709422 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Results of several studies provide evidence that suggests procedural memory is not only responsible for sequential unification, but for syntactic priming and grammatical processing as well.

One study used patients with [[Korsakoff’s syndrome]] to show that procedural memory subserves [[syntactic priming]]. Although Korsakoff’sKorsakoff's patients have deficits in declarative memory, their nondeclarative memory is preserved, allowing them to successfully complete syntactic priming tasks, as in the study. This result proves syntactic priming is a nondeclarative memory function. These patients were also capable of forming proper grammatical sentences, suggesting that procedural memory is responsible for grammatical processing in addition to syntactic priming.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Heyselaar|first1=Evelien|last2=Segaert|first2=Katrien|last3=Walvoort|first3=Serge J.W.|last4=Kessels|first4=Roy P.C.|last5=Hagoort|first5=Peter|year=2017|title=The role of nondeclarative memory in the skill for language: Evidence from syntactic priming in patients with amnesia|url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40798978/HSWKH_Neuropsychologia_revised_2.pdf|journal=Neuropsychologia|volume=101|pages=97–105|doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.033|pmid=28465069|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002D-4D0D-1|s2cid=4109634|hdl-access=free}}<!--http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/40798978/HSWKH_Neuropsychologia_revised_2.pdf--></ref>

Another study’sstudy's results support the hypothesis that procedural memory subserves grammar. The study involved a series of tests for two groups: one typically developing (TD) group and one group with developmental language disorder (DLD). Those with DLD have difficulty with proper grammar usage, due to deficits in procedural memory function. Overall, the TD group performed better on each task and displayed better speed in grammatical processing than the DLD group. Therefore, this study shows that grammatical processing is a function of procedural memory.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Clark | first1 = Gillian M. | last2 = Lum | first2 = Jarrad A.G. | title = Procedural memory and speed of grammatical processing: Comparison between typically developing children and language impaired children | journal = Research in Developmental Disabilities | volume = 71 | year = 2017 | pages = 237–247 | doi = 10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.015 | pmid = 29073489 }}</ref>

According to a study carried out in 2010 by [[Dalhousie University]] researchers, spoken languages which require the use of helping words or suffixes, rather than word order, to explain subject-object relationships rely on procedural memory. Word-order dependent languages rely on short-term memory for equivalent tasks.<ref>[http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/57944/title/Languages_use_different_parts_of_brain Languages use different parts of brain]</ref>