Influence: Science and Practice: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 19:00, 24 May 2022

Revision as of 20:07, 3 June 2022

Line 1:

{{Short description|Psychology book by Robert Cialdini}}

{{Multiple issues|

{{unreferencedmore citations needed|date=MayJune 20212022}}

{{Notability|1=Books|date=May 2022}}

}}

Line 32:

===Social proof===

<references group="Reference in Chapter Seperator Source Title 1 ; Cai, H., Chen, Y., & Fang, H. (2009). Observational learning: Evidence from a randomized natural field experiment. American Economic Review, 99, 864–882. 1 ; Salganik, M. J., Dodds, P. S., & Watts, D. J. (2006). Experimental study of inequality and unpredictability in an artificial cultural market. Science, 311, February 10, 854–856. 1 ; &quot;The impact of the London brewery’s bar sign was reported by advertising expert Richard Shotton, who designed the test (Shotton, 2018).&quot; 1 ; Surowiecki, J. (2004). The wisdom of crowds. New York: Doubleday. 1 ; Thompson, D. (2017). Hit makers: The science of popularity in an age of distraction. New York: Penguin. 1 ; www.influenceatwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Persuasion-Pilots[1]McDonalds-Arcos-Dorados-INFLUENCE-AT-WORKpdf.pdf. 2 ; Behavioral Insights Team on p. 29 of Behavioral Insights for Cities (www.bi.team/wp content/uploads/2016/10/Behavioral-Insights-for-Cities-2.pdf 2 ; Unreferenced????? 2 ; De Martino et al., 2017 2 ; Zitek & Hebl, 2007 2 ; www.wired.com/2009/06/dayintech-0604 2 ; www.influenceatwork.com/wp[1]content/uploads/2020/03/Persuasion-Pilots-McDonalds-Arcos-Dorados-INFLUENCE-AT[1]WORKpdf.pdf 2 ; van Herpen, Pieters, & Zeelenberg, 2009 2 ; www.insider.com/suspicious-white-van-unfounded-facebook-stories-causing-mass-hysteria[1]2019-12 2 ; Under the Influence: Putting Peer Pressure to Work (2020) 2 ; www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/17/an-apocalyptic-cult-900-dead-remembering the-jonestown-massacre-40-years-on 2 ; Powers, N., Blackman, A., Lyon, T. P., & Narain, U. (2011). Does disclosure reduce pollution?: Evidence from India’s Green Rating Project. Environmental and Resource Economics, 50, 131–155. 2 ; Stok, F. M., de Ridder, D. T., de Vet, E., & de Wit, J. F. (2014). Don’t tell me what I should do, but what others do: The influence of descriptive and injunctive peer norms on fruit consumption in adolescents. British Journal of Health Psychology 19, 52–64. 2 ; Behavioral Insights Team on p. 29 of Behavioral Insights for Cities (www.bi.team/wp content/uploads/2016/10/Behavioral-Insights-for-Cities-2.pdf 2 ; Bandura, A., & Menlove, F. L. (1968). Factors determining vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior through symbolic modeling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 99–108. 2 ; Garcia, J. H., Sterner, T., & Afsah, S. (2007). Public disclosure of industrial pollution: The PROPER approach in Indonesia. Environmental and Developmental Economics, 12, 739–756. 3 ; Gal, D. & Rucker D. D. (2010). When in doubt, shout! Paradoxical influences of doubt on proselytizing. Psychological Science, 21, 1701–1707. 3 ; Unreferenced????? 3 ; Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W., & Schachter, S. (1964). When prophecy fails. New York: Harper & Row. 4 ; Dauten, D. (2004, July 22). How to be a good waiter and other innovative ideas. Arizona Republic, D3. 4 ; De Martino et al., 2017 4 ; Sechrist, G. B., & Stangor, C. (2007). When are intergroup attitudes based on perceived consensus information? The role of group familiarity. Social Influence, 2, 211–235. 4 ; Sharps, M., & Robinson, E. (2017). Perceived eating norms and children’s eating behavior: An Informational social Influence account. Appetite, 113, 41–50. 4 ; Wooten, D. B., & Reed, A. (1998). Informational influence and the ambiguity of product experience: Order effects on the weighting of evidence. Journal of Consumer Research, 7, 79–99. 4 ; Zitek & Hebl, 2007 4 ; www.wired.com/2009/06/dayintech-0604 4 ; www.influenceatwork.com/wp[1]content/uploads/2020/03/Persuasion-Pilots-McDonalds-Arcos-Dorados-INFLUENCE-AT[1]WORKpdf.pdf 5 ; Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., Heene, M., et al. (2011). The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 517–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023304. 5 ; Gansberg, M. (1964, March 27). 37 who saw murder didn’t call the police. New York Times, 1. 5 ; Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215–221. 5 ; Manning, R., Levine, M., & Collins, A. (2007). The Kitty Genovese murder and the social psychology of helping: The parable of the 38 witnesses. American Psychologist, 62, 555–562. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.6.555. 5 ; Philpot, R., Liebst, L. S., Levine, M., Bernasco, W., & Lindegaard, M. R. (2020). Would I be helped? Cross national CCTV footage shows that intervention is the norm in public conflicts. American Psychologist, 75, 66–75 5 ; Rosenthal, A. M. (1964). Thirty-eight witnesses. New York: McGraw-Hill. 5 ; Shotland, R. I., & Straw, M. (1976). Bystander response to an assault: When a man attacks a woman. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 990–999. 5 ; Clark, R. D., III, & Word, L. E. (1974). Where is the apathetic bystander? Situational characteristics of the emergency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 279–287. 5 ; Clark, R. D., III, & Word, L. E. (1972). Why don’t bystanders help? Because of ambiguity? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 392–400. 6 ; Fein, S., Goethals, G. R., & Kugler, M. B. (2007). Social influence on political judgments: The case of presidential debates. Political Psychology, 28, 165–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2007.00561.x. 6 ; Gallup, A. C., Hale, J. J.,. Sumpter, D. J. T., Garnier, S., Kacelnik, A., Krebs, J. R., & Couzin, I. D. (2012). Visual attention and the acquisition of information in human crowds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 7245–7250. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1116141109. 6 ; Stewart, P. A., Eubanks, A. D., Dye, R. G., Gong, Z. H., Bucy, E. P., Wicks, R. H., & Eidelman, S. (2018). Candidate performance and observable audience response: Laughter and applause-cheering during the first 2016 Clinton-Trump presidential debate. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01182. 6 ; Milgram, S., Bickman, L., & Berkowitz, O. (1969). Note on the drawing power of crowds of different size. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 79–82. 7 ; Josef Adalian, “Please Chuckle Here,” New York Magazine, November 23, 2011, http://nymag.com/arts/tv/features/laughtracks-2011-12/; “How Do Laugh Tracks Work?” www.youtube.com/watch?v=-suD4KbgTl4). 8 ; Danchin, E., Nöbel, S., Pocheville, A., Dagaeff, A-C., Demay, L., Alphand, M., Ranty-Roby, S., et al. (2018). Cultural flies: Conformist social learning in fruit-flies predicts long-lasting mate-choice traditions. Science, 362, 1025–1030. 8 ; Freling, T. H., & Dacin, P. A. (2010). When consensus counts: Exploring the impact of consensus claims in advertising. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20, 163–175. 8 ; Lansky, D. (2002, March 31). A day for stiffupperlipps, other nags. Arizona Republic, T4. 8 ; MacKay, C. (1841/1932). Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 8 ; Sharps, M., & Robinson, E. (2017). Perceived eating norms and children’s eating behavior: An Informational social Influence account. Appetite, 113, 41–50. 8 ; van Herpen, Pieters, & Zeelenberg, 2009 8 ; MacKay, C. (1841/1932). Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 8 ; Researchers from the Alfresco Labs performed the shopping-mall study; see www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/behavioural-economics-used-herd-shoppers/1348142. 8 ; www.insider.com/suspicious-white-van-unfounded-facebook-stories-causing-mass-hysteria[1]2019-12 9 ; Fornara, F., Carrus, G., Passafaro, P., & Bonnes, M. (2011). Distinguishing the sources of normative influence on pro-environmental behaviors: The role of local norms in household waste recycling. Group Processes & Intergroup Dynamics, 14, 623–635. 9 ; Nolan, J. M., Schultz, P. W., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. (2008). Normative social influence is underdetected. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 913–923. 10 ; Berns, G. S., Chappelow J., Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skuski, M. E., & Richards, J. (2005). Neurobiological correlates of social conformity and independence during mental rotation. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 245–253. 10 ; Binning, K. R., Kaufmann, N., McGreevy, E. M., Fotuhi, O., Chen, S., Marshman, E., Kalender, Z. Y., Limeri, L., Betancur, L., & Singh, C. (2020). Changing social contexts to foster equity in college science courses: An ecological-belonging intervention. Psychological Science, 31, 1059–1070. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620929984. 10 ; Cullum, J., O’Grady, M., Sandoval, P., Armeli, A., & Tennen, T. (2013). Ignoring norms with a little help from my friends: Social support reduces normative influence on drinking behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology: 32, 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2013.32.1.17. 10 ; Ellemers, N., & van Nunspeet, F. (2020, September). Neuroscience and the social origins of moral behavior: How neural underpinnings of social categorization and conformity affect everyday moral and immoral behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420951584. 10 ; Hassan, S. (2000). Releasing the bonds: Empowering people to think for themselves. Boston: Freedom of Mind Press. 11 ; Boh, W. F., & Wong, S-S. (2015). Managers versus co-workers as referents: Comparing social influence effects on within- and outside-subsidiary knowledge sharing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 126, 1–17. 11 ; Borman, G. D., Rozek, C. S., Pyne, J., & Hanselman, P. (2019). Reappraising academic and social adversity improves middle school students’ academic achievement, behavior, and well-being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 16286–16291. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820317116. 11 ; Fox, C. R., Linder, J. A., & Doctor, J., N. (2016, March 27). How to stop overprescribing antibiotics. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2016/03/27/opinion/sunday/how-to-stop-overprescribing-antibiotics.html. 11 ; Jung, J., Busching, R., & Krahé, B. (2019). Catching aggression from one’s peers: A longitudinal and multilevel analysis. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12433. 11 ; Linder, J. A., Meeker, D., Fox, C. R., Friedberg, M. W., Persell, S. D., Goldstein, N. J., & Doctor, J. N. (2017). Effects of behavioral interventions on inappropriate antibiotic prescribing in primary care 12 months after stopping interventions. Journal of the American Medical Association, 318, 1391– 1392. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.11152. 11 ; Murrar, S., Campbell, M. R., & Brauer, M. (2020). Exposure to peers’ pro-diversity attitudes increases inclusion and reduces the achievement gap. Nature Human Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0899-5. 11 ; Nolan, J. M., Schultz, P. W., Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2021). The social norms approach: A wise intervention for solving social and environmental problems. In G. Walton and A. Crum (eds.) Handbook of Wise Interventions. (pp. 405–428). Guilford. 11 ; Sacarny, A., Barnett, M. L., Le, J., Tetkoski, F., Yokum, D., & Agrawal, S. (2018). Effect of peer comparison letters for high-volume primary care prescribers of quetiapine in older and disabled adults: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association Psychiatry, 75, 1003–1011. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1867. 11 ; Schultz, P. W. (1999). Changing behavior with normative feedback interventions: A field experiment on curbside recycling. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21, 25–36. 11 ; Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 1178–1197. 11 ; Wolske, K. S., Gillingham, K. T., & Schultz, P. W. (2020). Peer influence on household energy behaviours. Nature Energy 5, 202–212. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-019-0541-9. 11 ; Under the Influence: Putting Peer Pressure to Work (2020) 11 ; Wilson, T. D., & Linville, P. D. (1985). Improving the performance of college freshmen with attributional techniques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 287–293. 12 ; Allcott, H. (2011). Social norms and energy conservation. Journal of Public Economics, 95, 1082– 1095. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003. 12 ; Aune, R. K., & Basil, M. C. (1994). A relational obligations approach to the foot-in-the-mouth effect.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 546–556. 12 ; Ayres, I., Raseman, S., & Shih, A. (2013). Evidence from two large field experiments that peer comparison feedback can reduce residential energy usage. Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 29, 992–1022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jleo/ews02056. 12 ; Henry, M. L., Ferraro, P. J., & Kontoleon, A. (2019). The behavioural effect of electronic home energy reports: Evidence from a randomised field trial in the United States. Energy Policy, 132, 1256–1261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.06.039. 12 ; Melamed, B. F., Yurcheson, E., Fleece, L., Hutcherson, S., & Hawes, R. (1978). Effects of film modeling on the reduction of anxiety-related behaviors in individuals varying in level of previous experience in the stress situation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 1357–1374. 12 ; Murray, D. A., Leupker, R. V., Johnson, C. A., & Mittlemark, M. B. (1984). The prevention of cigarette smoking in children: A comparison of four strategies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 274–288. 12 ; Allcott, H., & Rogers, T. (2014). The short-run and long-run effects of behavioral interventions: Experimental evidence from energy conservation. American Economic Review, 104, 3003–37. 13 ; Bridge, J. A., Greenhouse, J. B., Ruch, D., Stevens, J., Ackerman, J., Sheftall, A. H., Horowitz, L. M., Kelleher, K. J., & Campo, J. V. (2019). Association between the release of Netflix’s 13 Reasons Why and suicide rates in the United States: An interrupted times series analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.04.020. 13 ; Bronnenberg, B. J., Dhar, S. K., & Dubé, J.-P. (2007). Consumer packaged goods in the United States: National brands, local branding. Journal of Marketing Research, 44, 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.44.1.004. 13 ; Carey, B. (2016, July 26). Mass killings may have created contagion, feeding on itself. New York Times, A11. 13 ; Goode, E., & Carey, B. (2015, October 7). Mass killings are seen as a kind of contagion. New York Times, A21. 13 ; The story of contagious train suicides in a California high school was recounted by Los Angeles Times reporter Maria La Ganga (2009). 13 ; Pane, L. M. (2019, December 29). Study: US mass killings reach new high in 2019. Arizona Republic, 8A Psychologist, 75, 66–75. 13 ; Phillips, D. P. (1974). The influence of suggestion on suicide: Substantive and theoretical implications of the Werther effect. American Sociological Review, 39, 340–354. 13 ; Phillips, D. P. (1980). Airplane accidents, murder, and the mass media: Towards a theory of imitation and suggestion. Social Forces, 58, 1001–1024 13 ; Reiterman, T. (2008). Raven: The untold story of the Rev. Jim Jones and his people. New York: Tarcher Perigee. 13 ; Rentfrow, P. J. (2010). Statewide differences in personality: Toward a psychological geography of the United States. American Psychologist, 65, 548–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018194. 13 ; Sumner, S. A., Burke, M., & Kooti, F. (2020). Adherence to suicide reporting guidelines by news shared on a social networking platform. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117, 16267– 16272. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2001230117. 13 ; Toufexis, A. (1993, June 28). A weird case, baby? Uh huh! Time, 41. 13 ; Towers, S., Gomez-Lievano, A., Khan M., Mubayi, A., & Castillo-Chavez, C. (2015). Contagion in mass killings and school shootings. PLoS ONE, 10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117259. 13 ; Phillips, D. P. (1979). Suicide, motor vehicle fatalities, and the mass media: Evidence toward a theory of suggestion. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1150–1174. 13 ; www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/17/an-apocalyptic-cult-900-dead-remembering the-jonestown-massacre-40-years-on 14 ; Cialdini, R. B. (1997). Professionally responsible communication with the public: Giving psychology a way. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 675–683. 14 ; Cialdini, R. B. (2003). Crafting normative messages to protect the environment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 105–109. 14 ; Donaldson, S. I., Graham, J. W., Piccinin, A. M., & Hansen, W. B. (1995). Resistance-skills training and onset of alcohol use. Health Psychology, 14, 291–300. 14 ; Mann, T., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. K., Burgard, D., Huang, K., Wright, A., & Hansen, K. (1997). Are two interventions worse than none? Health Psychology, 16, 215–225. 14 ; Shaffer, D., Garland, A., Vieland. V., Underwood, M., & Busner, C. (1991). The impact of curriculum- based suicide prevention programs for teenagers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 588–596. 14 ; Duguid, M. M., & Thomas-Hunt, M. C. (2015). Condoning stereotyping? How awareness of stereotyping prevalence impacts expression of stereotypes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 343–359. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037908. 15 ; Cheng, L., Hao, M., Xiao, L., & Wang, F. (2020). Join us: Dynamic norms encourage women to pursue STEM. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01105-4. 15 ; Hubbard, T. L. (2015). The varieties of momentum-like experience. Psychological Bulletin, 141, 1081–1119. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000016. 15 ; Loschelder, D. D, Siepelmeyer, H., Fischer, D., & Rubel, J. (2019). Dynamic norms drive sustainable consumption: Norm-based nudging helps café customers to avoid disposable to-go-cups. Journal of Economic Psychology, 75, 102146. 15 ; Maglio, S. J., & Polman, E. (2016). Revising probability estimates: Why increasing likelihood means increasing impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111, 141–158. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000058. 15 ; Markman, K. D., & Guenther, C. L. (2007). Psychological momentum: Intuitive physics and naïve beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 800–812. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301026. 15 ; Maus, G. W., Goh, H. L., & Lisi, M. (2020). Perceiving locations of moving objects across eyeblinks. Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620931365. 15 ; Mortensen, C. H., Neel, R., Cialdini, R. B., Jaeger, C. M., Jacobson, R. P., & Ringel, M. M. (2017). Upward trends: A lever for encouraging behaviors performed by the minority. Social Psychology and Personality Science. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1948550617734615. 15 ; Sparkman, G., & Walton, G. M. (2019). Witnessing change: Dynamic norms help resolve diverse barriers to personal change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 82, 238–252. 15 ; Sparkman G., & Walton, G. M. (2017). Dynamic norms promote sustainable behavior, even if it is counternormative. Psychological Science, 28, 1663–1674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617719950. 16 ; Bond, M. H., & Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 111–137. 16 ; Facci, E., L., & Kasarda, J. D. (2004). Revisiting wind-shear accidents: The social proof factor. Proceedings of the 49th Corporate Aviation Safety Seminar (pp. 205–232). Alexandrea, VA: Flight Safety Foundation. 16 ; News. (1988). Stanford Business School Magazine, 56, 3. 16 ; Cialdini, R. B., Wosinska, W., Barrett, D. W., Butner, J., & Gornik-Durose, M. (1999). Compliance with a request in two cultures: The differential influence of social proof and commitment/consistency on collectivists and individualists. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25, 1242–1253." /><references group="Reference in Chapter Seperator Source Title 1 ; Cai, H., Chen, Y., & Fang, H. (2009). Observational learning: Evidence from a randomized natural field experiment. American Economic Review, 99, 864–882. 1 ; Salganik, M. J., Dodds, P. S., & Watts, D. J. (2006). Experimental study of inequality and unpredictability in an artificial cultural market. Science, 311, February 10, 854–856. 1 ; "The impact of the London brewery’s bar sign was reported by advertising expert Richard Shotton, who designed the test (Shotton, 2018)." 1 ; Surowiecki, J. (2004). The wisdom of crowds. New York: Doubleday. 1 ; Thompson, D. (2017). Hit makers: The science of popularity in an age of distraction. New York: Penguin. 1 ; www.influenceatwork.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Persuasion-Pilots[1]McDonalds-Arcos-Dorados-INFLUENCE-AT-WORKpdf.pdf. 2 ; Behavioral Insights Team on p.&nbsp;29 of Behavioral Insights for Cities (www.bi.team/wp content/uploads/2016/10/Behavioral-Insights-for-Cities-2.pdf 2 ; Unreferenced????? 2 ; De Martino et al., 2017 2 ; Zitek & Hebl, 2007 2 ; www.wired.com/2009/06/dayintech-0604 2 ; www.influenceatwork.com/wp[1]content/uploads/2020/03/Persuasion-Pilots-McDonalds-Arcos-Dorados-INFLUENCE-AT[1]WORKpdf.pdf 2 ; van Herpen, Pieters, & Zeelenberg, 2009 2 ; www.insider.com/suspicious-white-van-unfounded-facebook-stories-causing-mass-hysteria[1]2019-12 2 ; Under the Influence: Putting Peer Pressure to Work (2020) 2 ; www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/17/an-apocalyptic-cult-900-dead-remembering the-jonestown-massacre-40-years-on 2 ; Powers, N., Blackman, A., Lyon, T. P., & Narain, U. (2011). Does disclosure reduce pollution?: Evidence from India’s Green Rating Project. Environmental and Resource Economics, 50, 131–155. 2 ; Stok, F. M., de Ridder, D. T., de Vet, E., & de Wit, J. F. (2014). Don’t tell me what I should do, but what others do: The influence of descriptive and injunctive peer norms on fruit consumption in adolescents. British Journal of Health Psychology 19, 52–64. 2 ; Behavioral Insights Team on p.&nbsp;29 of Behavioral Insights for Cities (www.bi.team/wp content/uploads/2016/10/Behavioral-Insights-for-Cities-2.pdf 2 ; Bandura, A., & Menlove, F. L. (1968). Factors determining vicarious extinction of avoidance behavior through symbolic modeling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 99–108. 2 ; Garcia, J. H., Sterner, T., & Afsah, S. (2007). Public disclosure of industrial pollution: The PROPER approach in Indonesia. Environmental and Developmental Economics, 12, 739–756. 3 ; Gal, D. & Rucker D. D. (2010). When in doubt, shout! Paradoxical influences of doubt on proselytizing. Psychological Science, 21, 1701–1707. 3 ; Unreferenced????? 3 ; Festinger, L., Riecken, H. W., & Schachter, S. (1964). When prophecy fails. New York: Harper & Row. 4 ; Dauten, D. (2004, July 22). How to be a good waiter and other innovative ideas. Arizona Republic, D3. 4 ; De Martino et al., 2017 4 ; Sechrist, G. B., & Stangor, C. (2007). When are intergroup attitudes based on perceived consensus information? The role of group familiarity. Social Influence, 2, 211–235. 4 ; Sharps, M., & Robinson, E. (2017). Perceived eating norms and children’s eating behavior: An Informational social Influence account. Appetite, 113, 41–50. 4 ; Wooten, D. B., & Reed, A. (1998). Informational influence and the ambiguity of product experience: Order effects on the weighting of evidence. Journal of Consumer Research, 7, 79–99. 4 ; Zitek & Hebl, 2007 4 ; www.wired.com/2009/06/dayintech-0604 4 ; www.influenceatwork.com/wp[1]content/uploads/2020/03/Persuasion-Pilots-McDonalds-Arcos-Dorados-INFLUENCE-AT[1]WORKpdf.pdf 5 ; Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., Heene, M., et al. (2011). The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 517–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023304. 5 ; Gansberg, M. (1964, March 27). 37 who saw murder didn’t call the police. New York Times, 1. 5 ; Latané, B., & Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215–221. 5 ; Manning, R., Levine, M., & Collins, A. (2007). The Kitty Genovese murder and the social psychology of helping: The parable of the 38 witnesses. American Psychologist, 62, 555–562. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.6.555. 5 ; Philpot, R., Liebst, L. S., Levine, M., Bernasco, W., & Lindegaard, M. R. (2020). Would I be helped? Cross national CCTV footage shows that intervention is the norm in public conflicts. American Psychologist, 75, 66–75 5 ; Rosenthal, A. M. (1964). Thirty-eight witnesses. New York: McGraw-Hill. 5 ; Shotland, R. I., & Straw, M. (1976). Bystander response to an assault: When a man attacks a woman. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 990–999. 5 ; Clark, R. D., III, & Word, L. E. (1974). Where is the apathetic bystander? Situational characteristics of the emergency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 29, 279–287. 5 ; Clark, R. D., III, & Word, L. E. (1972). Why don’t bystanders help? Because of ambiguity? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 24, 392–400. 6 ; Fein, S., Goethals, G. R., & Kugler, M. B. (2007). Social influence on political judgments: The case of presidential debates. Political Psychology, 28, 165–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2007.00561.x. 6 ; Gallup, A. C., Hale, J. J.,. Sumpter, D. J. T., Garnier, S., Kacelnik, A., Krebs, J. R., & Couzin, I. D. (2012). Visual attention and the acquisition of information in human crowds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 7245–7250. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1116141109. 6 ; Stewart, P. A., Eubanks, A. D., Dye, R. G., Gong, Z. H., Bucy, E. P., Wicks, R. H., & Eidelman, S. (2018). Candidate performance and observable audience response: Laughter and applause-cheering during the first 2016 Clinton-Trump presidential debate. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1182. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01182. 6 ; Milgram, S., Bickman, L., & Berkowitz, O. (1969). Note on the drawing power of crowds of different size. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 79–82. 7 ; Josef Adalian, “Please Chuckle Here,” New York Magazine, November 23, 2011, http://nymag.com/arts/tv/features/laughtracks-2011-12/; “How Do Laugh Tracks Work?” www.youtube.com/watch?v=-suD4KbgTl4). 8 ; Danchin, E., Nöbel, S., Pocheville, A., Dagaeff, A-C., Demay, L., Alphand, M., Ranty-Roby, S., et al. (2018). Cultural flies: Conformist social learning in fruit-flies predicts long-lasting mate-choice traditions. Science, 362, 1025–1030. 8 ; Freling, T. H., & Dacin, P. A. (2010). When consensus counts: Exploring the impact of consensus claims in advertising. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 20, 163–175. 8 ; Lansky, D. (2002, March 31). A day for stiffupperlipps, other nags. Arizona Republic, T4. 8 ; MacKay, C. (1841/1932). Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 8 ; Sharps, M., & Robinson, E. (2017). Perceived eating norms and children’s eating behavior: An Informational social Influence account. Appetite, 113, 41–50. 8 ; van Herpen, Pieters, & Zeelenberg, 2009 8 ; MacKay, C. (1841/1932). Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 8 ; Researchers from the Alfresco Labs performed the shopping-mall study; see www.campaignlive.co.uk/article/behavioural-economics-used-herd-shoppers/1348142. 8 ; www.insider.com/suspicious-white-van-unfounded-facebook-stories-causing-mass-hysteria[1]2019-12 9 ; Fornara, F., Carrus, G., Passafaro, P., & Bonnes, M. (2011). Distinguishing the sources of normative influence on pro-environmental behaviors: The role of local norms in household waste recycling. Group Processes & Intergroup Dynamics, 14, 623–635. 9 ; Nolan, J. M., Schultz, P. W., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein, N. J., & Griskevicius, V. (2008). Normative social influence is underdetected. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 913–923. 10 ; Berns, G. S., Chappelow J., Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skuski, M. E., & Richards, J. (2005). Neurobiological correlates of social conformity and independence during mental rotation. Biological Psychiatry, 58, 245–253. 10 ; Binning, K. R., Kaufmann, N., McGreevy, E. M., Fotuhi, O., Chen, S., Marshman, E., Kalender, Z. Y., Limeri, L., Betancur, L., & Singh, C. (2020). Changing social contexts to foster equity in college science courses: An ecological-belonging intervention. Psychological Science, 31, 1059–1070. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620929984. 10 ; Cullum, J., O’Grady, M., Sandoval, P., Armeli, A., & Tennen, T. (2013). Ignoring norms with a little help from my friends: Social support reduces normative influence on drinking behavior. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology: 32, 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2013.32.1.17. 10 ; Ellemers, N., & van Nunspeet, F. (2020, September). Neuroscience and the social origins of moral behavior: How neural underpinnings of social categorization and conformity affect everyday moral and immoral behavior. Current Directions in Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420951584. 10 ; Hassan, S. (2000). Releasing the bonds: Empowering people to think for themselves. Boston: Freedom of Mind Press. 11 ; Boh, W. F., & Wong, S-S. (2015). Managers versus co-workers as referents: Comparing social influence effects on within- and outside-subsidiary knowledge sharing. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 126, 1–17. 11 ; Borman, G. D., Rozek, C. S., Pyne, J., & Hanselman, P. (2019). Reappraising academic and social adversity improves middle school students’ academic achievement, behavior, and well-being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116, 16286–16291. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820317116. 11 ; Fox, C. R., Linder, J. A., & Doctor, J., N. (2016, March 27). How to stop overprescribing antibiotics. New York Times. www.nytimes.com/2016/03/27/opinion/sunday/how-to-stop-overprescribing-antibiotics.html. 11 ; Jung, J., Busching, R., & Krahé, B. (2019). Catching aggression from one’s peers: A longitudinal and multilevel analysis. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12433. 11 ; Linder, J. A., Meeker, D., Fox, C. R., Friedberg, M. W., Persell, S. D., Goldstein, N. J., & Doctor, J. N. (2017). Effects of behavioral interventions on inappropriate antibiotic prescribing in primary care 12 months after stopping interventions. Journal of the American Medical Association, 318, 1391– 1392. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.11152. 11 ; Murrar, S., Campbell, M. R., & Brauer, M. (2020). Exposure to peers’ pro-diversity attitudes increases inclusion and reduces the achievement gap. Nature Human Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0899-5. 11 ; Nolan, J. M., Schultz, P. W., Cialdini, R. B., & Goldstein, N. J. (2021). The social norms approach: A wise intervention for solving social and environmental problems. In G. Walton and A. Crum (eds.) Handbook of Wise Interventions. (pp.&nbsp;405–428). Guilford. 11 ; Sacarny, A., Barnett, M. L., Le, J., Tetkoski, F., Yokum, D., & Agrawal, S. (2018). Effect of peer comparison letters for high-volume primary care prescribers of quetiapine in older and disabled adults: A randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Medical Association Psychiatry, 75, 1003–1011. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.1867. 11 ; Schultz, P. W. (1999). Changing behavior with normative feedback interventions: A field experiment on curbside recycling. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 21, 25–36. 11 ; Stephens, N. M., Fryberg, S. A., Markus, H. R., Johnson, C., & Covarrubias, R. (2012). Unseen disadvantage: How American universities’ focus on independence undermines the academic performance of first-generation college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 1178–1197. 11 ; Wolske, K. S., Gillingham, K. T., & Schultz, P. W. (2020). Peer influence on household energy behaviours. Nature Energy 5, 202–212. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-019-0541-9. 11 ; Under the Influence: Putting Peer Pressure to Work (2020) 11 ; Wilson, T. D., & Linville, P. D. (1985). Improving the performance of college freshmen with attributional techniques. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 287–293. 12 ; Allcott, H. (2011). Social norms and energy conservation. Journal of Public Economics, 95, 1082– 1095. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2011.03.003. 12 ; Aune, R. K., & Basil, M. C. (1994). A relational obligations approach to the foot-in-the-mouth effect.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 546–556. 12 ; Ayres, I., Raseman, S., & Shih, A. (2013). Evidence from two large field experiments that peer comparison feedback can reduce residential energy usage. Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 29, 992–1022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jleo/ews02056. 12 ; Henry, M. L., Ferraro, P. J., & Kontoleon, A. (2019). The behavioural effect of electronic home energy reports: Evidence from a randomised field trial in the United States. Energy Policy, 132, 1256–1261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.06.039. 12 ; Melamed, B. F., Yurcheson, E., Fleece, L., Hutcherson, S., & Hawes, R. (1978). Effects of film modeling on the reduction of anxiety-related behaviors in individuals varying in level of previous experience in the stress situation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 1357–1374. 12 ; Murray, D. A., Leupker, R. V., Johnson, C. A., & Mittlemark, M. B. (1984). The prevention of cigarette smoking in children: A comparison of four strategies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 14, 274–288. 12 ; Allcott, H., & Rogers, T. (2014). The short-run and long-run effects of behavioral interventions: Experimental evidence from energy conservation. American Economic Review, 104, 3003–37. 13 ; Bridge, J. A., Greenhouse, J. B., Ruch, D., Stevens, J., Ackerman, J., Sheftall, A. H., Horowitz, L. M., Kelleher, K. J., & Campo, J. V. (2019). Association between the release of Netflix’s 13 Reasons Why and suicide rates in the United States: An interrupted times series analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.04.020. 13 ; Bronnenberg, B. J., Dhar, S. K., & Dubé, J.-P. (2007). Consumer packaged goods in the United States: National brands, local branding. Journal of Marketing Research, 44, 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1509/jmkr.44.1.004. 13 ; Carey, B. (2016, July 26). Mass killings may have created contagion, feeding on itself. New York Times, A11. 13 ; Goode, E., & Carey, B. (2015, October 7). Mass killings are seen as a kind of contagion. New York Times, A21. 13 ; The story of contagious train suicides in a California high school was recounted by Los Angeles Times reporter Maria La Ganga (2009). 13 ; Pane, L. M. (2019, December 29). Study: US mass killings reach new high in 2019. Arizona Republic, 8A Psychologist, 75, 66–75. 13 ; Phillips, D. P. (1974). The influence of suggestion on suicide: Substantive and theoretical implications of the Werther effect. American Sociological Review, 39, 340–354. 13 ; Phillips, D. P. (1980). Airplane accidents, murder, and the mass media: Towards a theory of imitation and suggestion. Social Forces, 58, 1001–1024 13 ; Reiterman, T. (2008). Raven: The untold story of the Rev. Jim Jones and his people. New York: Tarcher Perigee. 13 ; Rentfrow, P. J. (2010). Statewide differences in personality: Toward a psychological geography of the United States. American Psychologist, 65, 548–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018194. 13 ; Sumner, S. A., Burke, M., & Kooti, F. (2020). Adherence to suicide reporting guidelines by news shared on a social networking platform. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117, 16267– 16272. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2001230117. 13 ; Toufexis, A. (1993, June 28). A weird case, baby? Uh huh! Time, 41. 13 ; Towers, S., Gomez-Lievano, A., Khan M., Mubayi, A., & Castillo-Chavez, C. (2015). Contagion in mass killings and school shootings. PLoS ONE, 10. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117259. 13 ; Phillips, D. P. (1979). Suicide, motor vehicle fatalities, and the mass media: Evidence toward a theory of suggestion. American Journal of Sociology, 84, 1150–1174. 13 ; www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/17/an-apocalyptic-cult-900-dead-remembering the-jonestown-massacre-40-years-on 14 ; Cialdini, R. B. (1997). Professionally responsible communication with the public: Giving psychology a way. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23, 675–683. 14 ; Cialdini, R. B. (2003). Crafting normative messages to protect the environment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 105–109. 14 ; Donaldson, S. I., Graham, J. W., Piccinin, A. M., & Hansen, W. B. (1995). Resistance-skills training and onset of alcohol use. Health Psychology, 14, 291–300. 14 ; Mann, T., Nolen-Hoeksema, S. K., Burgard, D., Huang, K., Wright, A., & Hansen, K. (1997). Are two interventions worse than none? Health Psychology, 16, 215–225. 14 ; Shaffer, D., Garland, A., Vieland. V., Underwood, M., & Busner, C. (1991). The impact of curriculum- based suicide prevention programs for teenagers. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 588–596. 14 ; Duguid, M. M., & Thomas-Hunt, M. C. (2015). Condoning stereotyping? How awareness of stereotyping prevalence impacts expression of stereotypes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 100, 343–359. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037908. 15 ; Cheng, L., Hao, M., Xiao, L., & Wang, F. (2020). Join us: Dynamic norms encourage women to pursue STEM. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01105-4. 15 ; Hubbard, T. L. (2015). The varieties of momentum-like experience. Psychological Bulletin, 141, 1081–1119. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000016. 15 ; Loschelder, D. D, Siepelmeyer, H., Fischer, D., & Rubel, J. (2019). Dynamic norms drive sustainable consumption: Norm-based nudging helps café customers to avoid disposable to-go-cups. Journal of Economic Psychology, 75, 102146. 15 ; Maglio, S. J., & Polman, E. (2016). Revising probability estimates: Why increasing likelihood means increasing impact. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 111, 141–158. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000058. 15 ; Markman, K. D., & Guenther, C. L. (2007). Psychological momentum: Intuitive physics and naïve beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 800–812. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167207301026. 15 ; Maus, G. W., Goh, H. L., & Lisi, M. (2020). Perceiving locations of moving objects across eyeblinks. Psychological Science. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620931365. 15 ; Mortensen, C. H., Neel, R., Cialdini, R. B., Jaeger, C. M., Jacobson, R. P., & Ringel, M. M. (2017). Upward trends: A lever for encouraging behaviors performed by the minority. Social Psychology and Personality Science. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1948550617734615. 15 ; Sparkman, G., & Walton, G. M. (2019). Witnessing change: Dynamic norms help resolve diverse barriers to personal change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 82, 238–252. 15 ; Sparkman G., & Walton, G. M. (2017). Dynamic norms promote sustainable behavior, even if it is counternormative. Psychological Science, 28, 1663–1674. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617719950. 16 ; Bond, M. H., & Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 111–137. 16 ; Facci, E., L., & Kasarda, J. D. (2004). Revisiting wind-shear accidents: The social proof factor. Proceedings of the 49th Corporate Aviation Safety Seminar (pp.&nbsp;205–232). Alexandrea, VA: Flight Safety Foundation. 16 ; News. (1988). Stanford Business School Magazine, 56, 3. 16 ; Cialdini, R. B., Wosinska, W., Barrett, D. W., Butner, J., & Gornik-Durose, M. (1999). Compliance with a request in two cultures: The differential influence of social proof and commitment/consistency on collectivists and individualists. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25, 1242–1253." />

People generally look to other people similar to themselves when making decisions. This is particularly noticeable in situations of uncertainty or ambiguity.