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====Peer group====
JR Harris suggested in ''[[The Nurture Assumption]]'' that an individual's [[peer group]] influences their intelligence greatly over time, and that different peer group characteristics may be responsible for the [[race and intelligence|black-white IQ gap]]. Several [[longitudinal studies]] support the conjecture that peer groups significantly affect scholastic achievement,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ermisch |first1=J. |last2=Francesconi |first2=M. |date=2001 |title=Family Matters: Impacts of Family Background on Educational Attainments |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0335.00239 |journal=Economica |volume=68 |pages=137-156 | doi=10.1111/1468-0335.00239}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Kindermann, Thomas A|year=1993|volume= 29|issue=6|pages=970–977|doi=10.1037/0012-1649.29.6.970|title=Natural peer groups as contexts for individual development: The case of children's motivation in school |journal=Developmental Psychology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Sacerdote | first=B. | title=Peer Effects with Random Assignment: Results for Dartmouth Roommates | journal=The Quarterly Journal of Economics | publisher=Oxford University Press | volume=116 | issue=2 | date=2001-05-01 | issn=0033-5533 | doi=10.1162/00335530151144131 | pages=681–704 |url=https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w7469/w7469.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |ssrn=388214|title=Do Peer Groups Matter? Peer Group versus Schooling Effects on Academic Attainment|author1=Robertson, Donald |author2=Symons, James |year=2003|volume=70|issue=277|pages=31–53|doi=10.1111/1468-0335.d01-46|journal=Economica|s2cid=154498828}}</ref> but relatively few studies have examined the effect on tests of cognitive ability.
The [[peer group]] an individual identifies with can also influence intelligence through the [[stereotype]]s associated with that group. The [[stereotype threat]], first introduced by [[Claude Steele]], is the idea that people belonging to a stereotyped group may perform poorly in a situation where the stereotype is relevant. This has been shown to be a factor in differences in intelligence test scores between different ethnic groups, men and women, people of low and high [[social status]] and young and old participants. For example, females who were told that women are worse at chess than men, performed worse in a game of chess than females who were not told this.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Maass|first=Anne|author2=D'Ettole, Claudio|author3=Cadinu, Marra|title=Checkmate? The role of gender stereotypes in the ultimate intellectual sport|journal=European Journal of Social Psychology|year=2008|volume=38|issue=2|url=http://clarksvillechessclub.org/pdf%20files/The%20role%20of%20gender%20stereotypes%20in%20chess.pdf|doi=10.1002/ejsp.440|pages=231–245|s2cid=144308852 |access-date=2012-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120220830/http://clarksvillechessclub.org/pdf%20files/The%20role%20of%20gender%20stereotypes%20in%20chess.pdf|archive-date=2012-11-20|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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