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=== Measurement and estimates ===
Different exact definitions and associated measurement methods yield different estimates of the "junk" fraction of the genome.<ref name="Nessa3" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Palazzo |first1=A F |last2=Kejiou |first2=N S |year=2022 |title=Non-Darwinian Molecular Biology |journal=Front. Genet. |volume=13 |pages=831068 |doi=10.3389/fgene.2022.831068 |pmc=8888898 |pmid=35251134 |doi-access=free}}</ref> For example, 20% of human genomic DNA shows no biochemical activity,<ref name="Nature489p572">{{cite journal |vauthors=Dunham I, Kundaje A, Aldred SF, Collins PJ, Davis CA, Doyle F, etal |date=September 2012 |title=An integrated encyclopedia of DNA elements in the human genome |journal=Nature |volume=489 |issue=7414 |pages=57–74 |bibcode=2012Natur.489...57T |doi=10.1038/nature11247 |pmc=3439153 |pmid=22955616 |collaboration=The ENCODE Project Consortium}}.</ref> whereas 85-92% appears to be non-functional via [[comparative genomics]] methods.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ponting CP, Hardison RC |date=November 2011 |title=What fraction of the human genome is functional? |journal=Genome Research |volume=21 |issue=11 |pages=1769–1776 |doi=10.1101/gr.116814.110 |pmc=3205562 |pmid=21875934}}</ref><ref name="kellis2">{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Kellis M, Wold B, Snyder MP, Bernstein BE, Kundaje A, Marinov GK, Ward LD, Birney E, Crawford GE, Dekker J, Dunham I, Elnitski LL, Farnham PJ, Feingold EA, Gerstein M, Giddings MC, Gilbert DM, Gingeras TR, Green ED, Guigo R, Hubbard T, Kent J, Lieb JD, Myers RM, Pazin MJ, Ren B, Stamatoyannopoulos JA, Weng Z, White KP, Hardison RC |date=April 2014 |title=Defining functional DNA elements in the human genome |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=17 |pages=6131–6138 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6131K |doi=10.1073/pnas.1318948111 |pmc=4035993 |pmid=24753594 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Rands2">{{cite journal |vauthors=Rands CM, Meader S, Ponting CP, Lunter G |date=July 2014 |title=8.2% of the Human genome is constrained: variation in rates of turnover across functional element classes in the human lineage |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e1004525 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1004525 |pmc=4109858 |pmid=25057982}}</ref> Ultimately genetic, evolutionary, and biochemical approaches can all be used in a complementary way to identify regions that may be functional in human biology and disease.<ref name="kellis2" />
==== ENCODE Project ====
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