Computer-assisted language learning: Difference between revisions

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'''Computer-assisted language learning''' ('''CALL'''), British, or '''Computer-Aided Instruction''' ('''CAI''')/'''Computer-Aided Language Instruction''' ('''CALI'''), American,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Higgins|first=John|date=1983|title=Computer assisted language learning|journal=Language Teaching|volume=16|issue=2|pages=102–114|doi=10.1017/S0261444800009988|s2cid=145169394 }}</ref> is briefly defined in a seminal work by Levy (1997: p.&nbsp;1) as "the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning".<ref name="levy1997">Levy M. (1997) ''CALL: context and conceptualisation'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref> CALL embraces a wide range of [[information and communications technology]] applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice programs that characterised CALL in the 1960s and 1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as used in a [[virtual learning environment]] and Web-based [[distance learning]]. It also extends to the use of [[#Corpora and concordancers|corpora and concordancers]], interactive whiteboards,<ref name="schmidcutrim2009">Schmid Euline Cutrim (2009) ''Interactive whiteboard technology in the language classroom: exploring new pedagogical opportunities'', Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.</ref> computer-mediated communication (CMC),<ref name="lamyhampel">Lamy M.-N. & Hampel R. (2007) ''Online communication in language learning and teaching'', Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref> [[#Virtual worlds|language learning in virtual worlds]], and [[Mobile-assisted language learning|mobile-assisted language learning (MALL)]].<ref name="shieldkukulska">Shield L. & Kukulska-Hulme A. (eds.) (2008) Special edition of ''ReCALL'' (20, 3) on ''Mobile Assisted Language Learning''.</ref>

The term CALI (computer-assisted language instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its origins as a subset of the general term CAI (computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of favour among language teachers, however, as it appeared to imply a teacher-centred approach (instructional), whereas language teachers are more inclined to prefer a student-centred approach, focusing on learning rather than instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the early 1980s (Davies & Higgins 1982: p.&nbsp;3)<ref>Davies G. & Higgins J. (1982) ''Computers, language and language learning'', London: CILT.</ref> and it is now incorporated into the names of the growing number of [[#Professional associations|professional associations]] worldwide.

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A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL is usually referred to as [[blended learning]]. Blended learning is designed to increase learning potential and is more commonly found than pure CALL (Pegrum 2009: p.&nbsp;27).<ref>Pegrum M. (2009) ''From blogs to bombs: The future of digital technologies in education'', Perth: University of Western Australia Press.</ref>

See Davies ''et al.'' (2011: Section 1.1, ''What is CALL?'').<ref name=davieswalkeretal>Davies G., Walker R., Rendall H. & Hewer S. (2011) Introduction to Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Module 1.4 in Davies G. (ed.) ''Information and Communications Technology for Language Teachers (ICT4LT)'', Slough, Thames Valley University [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en_mod1-4.htm</ref> See also Levy & Hubbard (2005), who raise the question ''Why call CALL "CALL"?''<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Levy | first1 = M. | last2 = Hubbard | first2 = P. | year = 2005 | title = Why call CALL "CALL"? | journal = Computer Assisted Language Learning | volume = 18 | issue = 3| pages = 143–149 | doi=10.1080/09588220500208884| s2cid = 62662197 }}</ref>

==History==

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Since the 1990s, it has become increasingly difficult to categorise CALL as it now extends to the use of [[blogs]], [[wikis]], [[social networking]], [[podcasting]], [[Web 2.0]] applications, [[#Virtual worlds|language learning in virtual worlds]] and [[interactive whiteboards]] (Davies et al. 2010: Section 3.7).<ref name=davieswalkeretal/>

Warschauer (1996)<ref name=warschauer96>Warschauer M. (1996) "Computer-assisted language learning: an introduction". In Fotos S. (ed.) ''Multimedia language teaching'', Tokyo: Logos International [Online]: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/warschauer.htm</ref> and Warschauer & Healey (1998)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Warschauer | first1 = M. | last2 = Healey | first2 = D. | year = 1998 | title = Computers and language learning: an overview | journal = Language Teaching | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 57–71 | doi=10.1017/s0261444800012970| s2cid = 12813227 }}</ref> took a different approach. Rather than focusing on the typology of CALL, they identified three historical phases of CALL, classified according to their underlying pedagogical and methodological approaches:

* Behavioristic CALL: conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and 1970s.

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"Discrete error analysis and feedback were a common feature of traditional CALL, and the more sophisticated programs would attempt to analyse the learner's response, pinpoint errors, and branch to help and remedial activities. ... Error analysis in CALL is, however, a matter of controversy. Practitioners who come into CALL via the disciplines of [[computational linguistics]], e.g. Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Human Language Technologies (HLT), tend to be more optimistic about the potential of error analysis by computer than those who come into CALL via language teaching. [...] An alternative approach is the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques to parse the learner's response – so-called ''intelligent CALL'' (ICALL) – but there is a gulf between those who favour the use of AI to develop CALL programs (Matthews 1994)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Matthews | first1 = C | year = 1994 | title = Intelligent Computer Assisted Language Learning as cognitive science: the choice of syntactic frameworks for language tutoring | journal = Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education | volume = 5 | issue = 4| pages = 533–56 }}</ref> and, at the other extreme, those who perceive this approach as a threat to humanity (Last 1989:153)".<ref>Last R.W. (1989) ''Artificial intelligence techniques in language learning'', Chichester: Ellis Horwood.</ref>

Underwood (1989)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Underwood | first1 = J | year = 1989 | title = On the edge: Intelligent CALL in the 1990s | journal = Computers and the Humanities | volume = 23 | pages = 71–84 | doi=10.1007/bf00058770| s2cid = 60043026 }}</ref> and Heift & Schulze (2007)<ref>Heift T. & Schulze M. (eds.) (2007) ''Errors and intelligence in CALL: parsers and pedagogues'', New York: Routledge.</ref> present a more positive picture of AI.

Research into speech synthesis, speech recognition and parsing and how these areas of NLP can be used in CALL are the main focus of the NLP Special Interest Group<ref>EUROCALL NLP Special Interest Group: http://siglp.eurocall-languages.org/</ref> within the [[European Association for Computer-Assisted Language Learning|EUROCALL]] professional association and the ICALL Special Interest Group<ref>CALICO ICALL Special Interest Group: [https://archive.today/20120712140702/http://purl.org/calico/icall]</ref> within the [[CALICO (consortium)|CALICO]] professional association. The EUROCALL NLP SIG also maintains a Ning.<ref>EUROCALL NLP Special Interest Group Ning: http://nlpsig.ning.com/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714184147/http://nlpsig.ning.com/ |date=14 July 2011 }}</ref>

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Since the advent of the Web there has been an explosion in online learning, but to what extent it is effective is open to criticism. Felix (2003) takes a critical look at popular myths attached to online learning from three perspectives, namely administrators, teachers and students. She concludes: "That costs can be saved in this ambitious enterprise is clearly a myth, as are expectations of saving time or replacing staff with machines."<ref>Felix U. (2003) "Teaching languages online: deconstructing the myths", ''Australian Journal of Educational Technology'' 19, 1: 118–138 [Online]: http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/felix.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314045708/http://www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet19/felix.html |date=14 March 2011 }}</ref>

As for the effectiveness of CALL in promoting the four skills, Felix (2008) claims that there is "enough data in CALL to suggest positive effects on spelling, reading and writing", but more research is needed in order to determine its effectiveness in other areas, especially speaking online. She claims that students' perceptions of CALL are positive, but she qualifies this claim by stating that the technologies need to be stable and well supported, drawing attention to concerns that technical problems may interfere with the learning process. She also points out that older students may not feel comfortable with computers and younger students may not possess the necessary metaskills for coping effectively in the challenging new environments. Training in computer literacy for both students and teachers is essential, and time constraints may pose additional problems. In order to achieve meaningful results she recommends "time-series analysis in which the same group of students is involved in experimental and control treatment for a certain amount of time and then switched – more than once if possible".<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Felix | first1 = U | year = 2008 | title = The unreasonable effectiveness of CALL: what have we learned in two decades of research? | journal = ReCALL | volume = 20 | issue = 2| pages = 141–161 | doi=10.1017/s0958344008000323| s2cid = 26766962 }}</ref>

Types of technology training in CALL for language teaching professionals certainly vary. Within second language teacher education programs, namely pre-service course work, we can find "online courses along with face-to-face courses", computer technology incorporated into a more general second language education course, "technology workshops","a series of courses offered throughout the teacher education programs, and even courses specifically designed for a CALL certificate and a CALL graduate degree"<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hong | first1 = K. H. | year = 2010 | title = CALL teacher education as an impetus for 12 teachers in integrating technology | journal = ReCALL | volume = 22 | issue = 1| pages = 53–69 | doi = 10.1017/s095834400999019X | s2cid = 27700801 }}</ref> The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development has identified four levels of courses with only components, namely "web-supplemented, web-dependent, mixed mod and fully online".<ref>Murray, D. E. (2013) A Case for Online English Language Teacher Education. The International Research Foundation for English Language Education. http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/TIRF_OLTE_One-PageSpread_2013.pdf</ref>

There is a rapidly growing interest in resources about the use of technology to deliver CALL. Journals that have issues that "deal with how teacher education programs help prepare language teachers to use technology in their own classrooms" include ''Language Learning and Technology'' (2002), ''Innovations in Language Learning and Teaching'' (2009) and the TESOL international professional association's publication of technology standards for TESOL includes a chapter on preparation of teacher candidates in technology use, as well as the upgrading of teacher educators to be able to provide such instruction. Both CALICO and EUROCALL have special interest groups for teacher education in CALL.<ref>Murray, D. E. (2013) A Case for Online English Language Teacher Education. The International Research Foundation for English Language Education. http://www.tirfonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/TIRF_OLTE_One-PageSpread_2013{{Dead link|date=November 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>