Redshift quantization: Difference between revisions

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{{Short description|Physical hypothesis}}

'''Redshift quantization''', also referred to as '''redshift periodicity''',<ref>

{{cite journal |last=Tifft |first=W. G. |date=2006 |title=Redshift periodicities, The Galaxy-Quasar Connection |journal=[[Astrophysics and Space Science]] |volume=285 |issue=2 |pages=429–449 |bibcode=2003Ap&SS.285..429T |doi=10.1023/A:1025457030279|s2cid=120143840 }}</ref> '''redshift discretization''',<ref name=Karlsson>{{cite journal |last=Karlsson |first=K. G. |date=1970 |title=Possible Discretization of Quasar Redshifts |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=13 |pages=333 |bibcode=1971A&A....13..333K }}</ref> '''preferred redshifts'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arp |first1=H. |last2=Russel |first2=D. |date=2001 |title=A Possible Relationship between Quasars and Clusters of Galaxies |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=549 |issue=2 |pages=802 |bibcode=2001ApJ...549..802A |doi=10.1086/319438|s2cid=120014695 |quote=The clusters and the galaxies in them tend to be strong X-ray and radio emitters, and their redshifts occur at preferred redshift values.|doi-access=free }}</ref> and '''redshift-magnitude bands''',<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tifft |first=W. G. |date=1973 |title=Properties of the redshift-magnitude bands in the Coma cluster |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=179 |pages=29 |bibcode=1973ApJ...179...29T |doi=10.1086/151844}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nanni |first1=D. |last2=Pittella |first2=G. |last3=Trevese |first3=D. |last4=Vignato |first4=A. |date=1981 |title=An analysis of the redshift-magnitude band phenomenon in the Coma Cluster |journal=[[Astronomy and Astrophysics]] |volume=95 |issue=1 |pages=188 |bibcode=1981A&A....95..188N }}</ref> is the [[hypothesis]] that the [[redshift]]s of cosmologically distant objects (in particular [[galaxies]] and [[quasars]]) tend to cluster around multiples of some particular value.

In [[inflation (cosmology)|standard inflationary cosmological models]], the redshift of cosmological bodies is ascribed to the expansion of the universe, with greater redshift indicating greater [[cosmic distance ladder|cosmic distance]] from the Earth (see [[Hubble's Law]]). This is referred to as [[cosmological redshift]] and is one of the main pieces of evidence for the [[Big Bang]]. Quantized redshifts of objects would indicate, under Hubble's Law, that astronomical objects are arranged in a quantized pattern around the Earth. It is more widely posited that the redshift is unrelated to cosmic expansion and is the outcome of some other physical mechanism, referred to as "intrinsic redshift" or "non-cosmological redshift".

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In 1973, astronomer [[William G. Tifft]] was the first to report evidence of this pattern. Subsequent discourse focused upon whether [[redshift survey]]s of [[quasar]]s (QSOs) have produced evidence of quantization in excess of what is expected due to [[selection effect]] or [[galaxy cluster|galactic clustering]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trimble |first1=V. |last2=Aschwanden |first2=M. J. |last3=Hansen |first3=C. J. |date=2007 |title=Astrophysics in 2006 |journal=[[Space Science Reviews]] |volume=132 |issue=1 |pages=1–182 |doi=10.1007/s11214-007-9224-0 |arxiv=0705.1730|bibcode = 2007SSRv..132....1T |s2cid=119570960 }}</ref><ref name="adsabs.harvard.edu">{{cite journal |last1= Bell |first1=M. B. |last2=McDiarmid |first2=D. |date=2006 |title=Six Peaks Visible in the Redshift Distribution of 46,400 SDSS Quasars Agree with the Preferred Redshifts Predicted by the Decreasing Intrinsic Redshift Model|journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |volume=648 |issue=1 |pages=140–147 |bibcode=2006ApJ...648..140B |doi=10.1086/503792|arxiv = astro-ph/0603169 |s2cid=17057129 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Godłowski |first1=W. |last2=Bajan |first2=K. |last3=Flin |first3=P.|date=2006 |title=Weak redshift discretisation in the Local Group of galaxies? |journal=[[Astronomische Nachrichten]] |volume=387 |issue=1 |pages=103 |bibcode=2006AN....327..103G |doi=10.1002/asna.200510477|arxiv = astro-ph/0511260 |s2cid=119388085 }}</ref><ref name=Tang>{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=S. M. |last2=Zhang |first2=S. N. |date=2005 |title=Critical Examinations of QSO Redshift Periodicities and Associations with Galaxies in Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=633 |issue=1 |pages=41–51 |bibcode=2005ApJ...633...41T |doi=10.1086/432754 |arxiv=astro-ph/0506366|s2cid=119052857 }}</ref> The idea has been on the fringes of astronomy since the mid-1990s and is now discounted by the vast majority of astronomers, but a few scientists who espouse [[nonstandard cosmology|nonstandard cosmological models]], including those who reject the Big Bang theory, have referred to evidence of redshift quantization as reason to reject conventional accounts of the origin and evolution of the [[universe]].<ref>For examples, see references by nonstandard cosmology proponents

*{{cite journal | last1 = Ratcliffe| first1 = Hilton| date=2009| title = A Review of Anomalous Redshift Data| journal = 2nd Crisis in Cosmology Conference, CCC-2 ASP Conference Series | volume = 413| pages = 109| bibcode = 2009ASPC..413..109R}}

*{{cite journal|bibcode=1973ApJ...186....1B|doi = 10.1086/152474 | title=A Quantitative Alternative to the Cosmological Hypothesis for Quasars | journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=1973|volume=186|pages=1–21|first=Moley B.|last=Bell|doi-access=free}}

*{{cite journal|bibcode=1979AZh....56..232K| title=periodicity of quasar redshifts ln /1 + z/ | journal=Astronomicheskii Zhurnal|date=1979|volume=56|pages=232–236|first=A. Ia.|last=Kipper}}

*{{cite journal|bibcode=1986ApJ...301..544L|doi = 10.1086/163922 | title=Is the universe really expanding? | journal=The Astrophysical Journal|date=1986|volume=301|pages=544|first=P. A.|last=Laviolette}}

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Studies performed in the 1980s and early 1990s produced confirmatory results:

#In 1989, Martin R. Croasdale reported finding a quantization of redshifts using a different sample of galaxies in increments of 72&nbsp;km/s or Δ''z'' = {{val|2.4|e=-4}} (where Δ''z'' denotes shift in frequency expressed as a proportion of initial frequency).<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1989ApJ...345...72C|doi = 10.1086/167882 | title=Periodicities in galaxy redshifts | journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=1989 |volume=345 |pages=72 |first=Martin R. |last=Croasdale|doi-access=free }}</ref>

#In 1990, Bruce Guthrie and William Napier reported finding a "possible periodicity" of the same magnitude for a slightly larger data set limited to bright [[spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]] and excluding other types.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1990MNRAS.243..431G| title=The Virgo cluster as a test for quantization of extragalactic redshifts | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=1990 |volume=243 |pages=431–442 |first1=B. N. G.|last1=Guthrie|first2=W. M.|last2=Napier}}</ref>

#In 1992, Guthrie and Napier proposed the observation of a different periodicity in increments of Δ''z'' = {{val|1.24|e=-4}} in a sample of 89 galaxies.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode=1991MNRAS.253..533G|doi = 10.1093/mnras/253.3.533| title=Evidence for redshift periodicity in nearby field galaxies | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |date=1991 |volume=253 |issue = 3|pages=533–544 |first1=B. N. G.|last1=Guthrie|first2=W. M.|last2=Napier|doi-access=free}}</ref>

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===Karlsson's formula===

Historically, K. G. Karlsson and G. R. Burbidge were first to note that quasar redshifts were quantized in accordance with the empirical formula<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Burbidge | first1 = G | year = 1968 | title = The Distribution of Redshifts in Quasi-Stellar Objects, N-Systems and Some Radio and Compact Galaxies | journal = [[Astrophysical Journal]] | volume = 154 | pages = L41–L48 | doi = 10.1086/180265 | bibcode=1968ApJ...154L..41B| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Karlsson | first1 = K. G. | year = 1990 | title=Quasar redshifts and nearby galaxies | journal = Astron Astrophys | volume = 239| pages = 50 | bibcode=1990A&A...239...50K}}</ref>

:<math>\log_{10}(1 + z) = 0.089n - 0.0632</math>