Government by algorithm: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 00:29, 14 August 2023

Revision as of 21:07, 14 August 2023

Line 3:

{{Government by algorithm}}

{{Governance|Models}}

'''Government by algorithm'''<ref name=sstandford>{{cite web |last1=School |first1=Stanford Law |title=Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda |url=https://law.stanford.edu/publications/government-by-algorithm-a-review-and-an-agenda/ |website=Stanford Law School |access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> (also known as '''algorithmic regulation''',<ref name=medina>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation. |journal=Kybernetes |date=2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052 |url=http://wosc.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Medina-Rethinking-Algorithmic-Regulation.pdf}}</ref> '''regulation by algorithms''', '''algorithmic governance''',<ref name="Engin">{{cite journal |last1=Engin |first1=Zeynep |last2=Treleaven |first2=Philip |title=Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies |journal=The Computer Journal|date=March 2019 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=448–460 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxy082|doi-access=free}}</ref> '''algocratic governance''', '''algorithmic legal order''' or '''algocracy'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=1 September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=2210-5441}}</ref>) is an alternative form of [[government]] or [[social order]]ing where the usage of computer [[algorithm]]s, especially of [[artificial intelligence]] and [[blockchain]], is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration.<ref name="karen">{{cite journal |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |title=Algorithmic regulation: A critical interrogation |journal=Regulation & Governance |date=December 2018 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=505–523 |doi=10.1111/rego.12158|s2cid=157086008 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katzenbach |first1=Christian |last2=Ulbricht |first2=Lena |title=Algorithmic governance |journal=Internet Policy Review |date=29 November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.14763/2019.4.1424 |hdl=10419/210652 |url=https://policyreview.info/concepts/algorithmic-governance |access-date=19 March 2020 |issn=2197-6775|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abril |first1=Rubén Rodríguez |title=DERECOM. Derecho de la Comunicación. - An approach to the algorithmic legal order and to its civil, trade and financial projection |website=www.derecom.com |url=http://www.derecom.com/secciones/articulos-de-fondo/item/398-an-approach-to-the-algorithmic-legal-order-and-to-its-civil-trade-and-financial-projection |access-date=20 May 2020 |language=es-es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rule by Algorithm? Big Data and the Threat of Algocracy |url=https://ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/danaher20140107 |access-date=20 May 2020 |work=ieet.org}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain>{{citation |last1=Werbach |first1=Kevin |title=The Siren Song: Algorithmic Governance By Blockchain |date=24 September 2018 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3578610}}.</ref> The term "government by algorithm" appeared in academic literature as an alternative for "algorithmic governance" in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=Ben |title=Decoding identity: Reprogramming pedagogic identities through algorithmic governance |journal=British Educational Research Association Conference |date=January 2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4477644 |access-date=26 December 2020}}</ref> A related term, algorithmic regulation, is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modifying behaviour by means of computational algorithms{{snd}}automation of [[judiciary]] is in its scope.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hildebrandt |first1=Mireille |title=Algorithmic regulation and the rule of law |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=6 August 2018 |volume=376 |issue=2128 |pages=20170355 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2017.0355|pmid=30082301 |bibcode=2018RSPTA.37670355H |doi-access=free}}</ref> In the context of blockchain, it is also known as '''blockchain governance'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lumineau |first1=Fabrice |last2=Wang |first2=Wenqian |last3=Schilke |first3=Oliver |title=Blockchain Governance—A New Way of Organizing Collaborations? |journal=Organization Science |date=1 March 2021 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=500–521 |doi=10.1287/orsc.2020.1379 |s2cid=225123270 |issn=1047-7039|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the [[e-government]] literature and the practice of public administration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Veale |first1=Michael |last2=Brass |first2=Irina |title=Administration by Algorithm? Public Management Meets Public Sector Machine Learning |date=2019 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3375391}}</ref> Some sources equate [[cyberocracy]], which is a hypothetical [[Government#Forms|form of government]] that rules by the effective use of information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7745.pdf |title=Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1991|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2007/RAND_RP222.pdf|title=Cyberocracy is Coming |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1992|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Ronfeldt |first1=David |last2=Varda |first2=Danielle |title=The Prospects for Cyberocracy (Revisited) |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=1325809}}.</ref> with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy |url=https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/07/04/transparency-in-governance-through-cyberocracy |website=The Kathmandu Post |first=Bimal Pratap |last=Shah |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hudson |first1=Alex |title='Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/28/far-more-than-surveillance-is-already-in-place-and-cyberocracy-could-change-how-government-is-run-10637802/ |website=Metro |access-date=25 April 2020 |date=28 August 2019}}</ref> [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a [[social machine]].<ref name=socialmachine>{{cite journal |last1=Cristianini |first1=Nello |last2=Scantamburlo |first2=Teresa |title=On social machines for algorithmic regulation |journal=AI & Society |date=8 October 2019 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=645–662 |doi=10.1007/s00146-019-00917-8 |arxiv=1904.13316 |bibcode=2019arXiv190413316C |s2cid=140233845 |issn=1435-5655}}</ref>

Line 121:

In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the [[Tama, Tokyo|Tama city area of Tokyo]] as a human proxy for an [[artificial intelligence]] program.<ref>{{cite web |title=POLITICS 2028: WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WILL REPLACE POLITICIANS b… |website=SlideShare |date=14 July 2018 |url=https://www.slideshare.net/MichihitoMatsuda/politics-2028-why-artificial-intelligence-will-replace-politicians-by-michihito-matsuda |access-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> While election posters and campaign material used the term ''robot'', and displayed [[stock images]] of a feminine [[Android (robot)|android]], the "AI mayor" was in fact a [[machine learning algorithm]] trained using Tama city datasets.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnston |first1=Lachlan |title=There's an AI Running for the Mayoral Role of Tama City, Tokyo |url=https://www.otaquest.com/tama-city-ai-mayor/ |website=OTAQUEST |access-date=22 September 2019 |date=12 April 2018}}</ref> The project was backed by high-profile executives Tetsuzo Matsumoto of [[Softbank]] and Norio Murakami of [[Google]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ai-mayor.com/|title=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019|website=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019}}</ref> Michihito Matsuda came third in the election, being defeated by [[Hiroyuki Abe (politician)|Hiroyuki Abe]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Werden Bots die besseren Politiker? |url=https://www.politik-kommunikation.de/ressorts/artikel/werden-bots-die-besseren-politiker-73781989 |access-date=31 October 2020 |work=Politik & Kommunikation |language=de}}</ref> Organisers claimed that the 'AI mayor' was programmed to analyze [[Online petition|citizen petitions]] put forward to the [[city council]] in a more 'fair and balanced' way than human politicians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Robot to run for mayor in Japan promising 'fairness and balance' for all|first1=Abigail|last1=O'Leary|first2=Anna |last2=Verdon|date=April 17, 2018|website=mirror |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/robot-run-mayor-japan-world-12377782}}</ref>

In 2018, [[Cesar Hidalgo]] presented the idea of [[augumented democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perez |first1=Oren |title=Collaborative е-Rulemaking, Democratic Bots, and the Future of Digital Democracy |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=31 January 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3352463 |s2cid=211519367 |language=en |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an augumented democracy, legislation is done by [[digital twin]]s of every single person.

In 2019, AI-powered messenger [[chatbot]] SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarmah |first1=Harshajit |title=World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand |url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/worlds-first-ai-powered-virtual-politician-sam-joins-the-electoral-race-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=Analytics India Magazine |date=28 January 2019}}</ref> The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believes SAM will be advanced enough to run as a [[Virtual politician|candidate]] by late 2020, when New Zealand has its next general election.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet SAM, world's first AI politician that hopes to run for New Zealand election in 2020 |date=26 November 2017 |work=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126111001/http://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 26, 2017 |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

Line 141:

{{See also|Early warning system}}

[[Tsunami]]s can be detected by [[Tsunami warning system]]s. They can make use of AI.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.preventionweb.net/go/67242|title=Japanese team develops AI-based system to forecast tsunami and damages|website=www.preventionweb.net}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221057355|title=Artificially Intelligent Tsunami Early Warning System}}</ref> [[Flooding]]s can also be detected using AI systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2019/08/10/artificial-intelligence-wildfires-flooding-rescue/|title=How Artificial Intelligence Could Help Fight Climate Change-Driven Wildfires and Save Lives|website=Fortune}}</ref> [[Wildfire]]s can be predicted using AI systems.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Predictive modeling of wildfires: A new dataset and machine learning approach|first1=Younes Oulad|last1=Sayad|first2=Hajar |last2=Mousannif|first3=Hassan|last3=Al Moatassime|date=March 1, 2019|journal=Fire Safety Journal |volume=104|pages=130–146|doi=10.1016/j.firesaf.2019.01.006|s2cid=116032143|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261272818|title=Artificial intelligence for forest fire prediction}}</ref> [[Wildfire#Detection|Wildfire detection is possible by AI systems]] (i.e. through satellite data, aerial imagery, and personnel position) and can help in the evacuation of people during wildfires.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Using Artificial Intelligence for Safe and Effective Wildfire Evacuations |first1=Xilei|last1=Zhao |first2=Ruggiero|last2=Lovreglio|first3=Erica|last3=Kuligowski|first4=Daniel |last4=Nilsson|date=April 15, 2020|journal=Fire Technology|volume=57|issue=2|pages=483–485 |doi=10.1007/s10694-020-00979-x|s2cid=218801709|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/12/05/tech/ai-wildfires/index.html |title=How AI is helping spot wildfires faster|author1=Rachel Metz |others=Video by John General |website=CNN|date=5 December 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/11/06/california-has-million-acres-forest-this-company-is-training-artificial-intelligence-scour-it-all-wildfire/|title=California has 33 million acres of forest. This company is training artificial intelligence to scour it all for wildfire. |first=Peter|last=Holley |via=www.washingtonpost.com}}</ref> [[Earthquake warning system|Earthquake detection systems]] are now improving alongside the development of AI technology through measuring seismic data and implementing complex algorithms to improve detection and prediction rates.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Sheng |first2=Yixiao |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Beroza |first4=Gregory C. |date=2019 |title=STanford EArthquake Dataset (STEAD): A Global Data Set of Seismic Signals for AI |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8871127 |journal=IEEE Access |volume=7 |pages=179464–179476 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2947848 |s2cid=208111095 |issn=2169-3536|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Banna |first1=Md. Hasan Al |last2=Taher |first2=Kazi Abu |last3=Kaiser |first3=M. Shamim |last4=Mahmud |first4=Mufti |last5=Rahman |first5=Md. Sazzadur |last6=Hosen |first6=A. S. M. Sanwar |last7=Cho |first7=Gi Hwan |date=2020 |title=Application of Artificial Intelligence in Predicting Earthquakes: State-of-the-Art and Future Challenges |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9218936 |journal=IEEE Access |volume=8 |pages=192880–192923 |doi=10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3029859 |s2cid=226292959 |issn=2169-3536}}</ref> Earthquake monitoring, phase picking, and seismic signal detection have developed through AI algorithms of [[Deep learning|deep-learning]], analysis, and computational models.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mousavi |first1=S. Mostafa |last2=Ellsworth |first2=William L. |last3=Zhu |first3=Weiqiang |last4=Chuang |first4=Lindsay Y. |last5=Beroza |first5=Gregory C. |date=2020-08-07 |title=Earthquake transformer—an attentive deep-learning model for simultaneous earthquake detection and phase picking |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=3952 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-17591-w |pmid=32770023 |pmc=7415159 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.3952M |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> [[Locust]] breeding areas can be approximated using machine learning, which could help to stop locust swarms in an early phase.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gómez |first1=Diego |last2=Salvador |first2=Pablo |last3=Sanz |first3=Julia |last4=Casanova |first4=Carlos |last5=Taratiel |first5=Daniel |last6=Casanova |first6=Jose Luis |date=August 15, 2018 |title=Machine learning approach to locate desert locust breeding areas based on ESA CCI soil moisture |journal=Journal of Applied Remote Sensing |volume=12 |issue=3 |at=036011 |bibcode=2018JARS...12c6011G |doi=10.1117/1.JRS.12.036011 |doi-access=free |s2cid=52230139}}</ref>

==Reception==