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===Spintronics===
{{main|Spintronics}}
Spintronics is a field of study that involves the use of the intrinsic spin and magnetic moment of electrons in solid-state devices.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wolf | first1 = S. A. | last2 = Chtchelkanova | first2 = A. Y. | last3 = Treger | first3 = D. M. | title = Spintronics—A retrospective and perspective | doi = 10.1147/rd.501.0101 | journal = IBM Journal of Research and Development | volume = 50 | pages = 101–110 | year = 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2927943907685656536&q=LevyResearch&ei=dxd1SNCtOqj2rAKxzf1p|title=Physics Profile: "Stu Wolf: True D! Hollywood Story"|access-date=2022-12-30|archive-date=2011-04-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110418015231/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=2927943907685656536|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1065389 Spintronics: A Spin-Based Electronics Vision for the Future]. Sciencemag.org (16 November 2001). Retrieved on 21 October 2013.</ref> It differs from traditional electronics in that it exploits the spin of electrons as an additional degree of freedom, which has potential applications in data storage and transfer,<ref name="Bhatti et al.">{{cite journal |first1=S. |last1=Bhatti |display-authors=etal |title=Spintronics based random access memory: a review |journal=Materials Today |year=2017 |volume=20 |issue=9 |pages=530–548 |doi=10.1016/j.mattod.2017.07.007|doi-access=free |hdl=10356/146755 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> as well as quantum and neuromorphic computing. Spintronic systems are often created using dilute magnetic semiconductors and Heusler alloys.
===Atomtronics===
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[[File:P-System Membrane Format.pdf|Nine Region Membrane Computer|thumb]]
Membrane computing, also known as P systems,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Păun|first=Gheorghe|title=Introduction to Membrane Computing|url=http://psystems.disco.unimib.it/download/MembIntro2004.pdf|access-date=2022-12-30|archive-date=2011-07-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722063157/http://psystems.disco.unimib.it/download/MembIntro2004.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> is a subfield of computer science that studies distributed and parallel computing models based on the structure and function of biological membranes. In these systems, objects such as symbols or strings are processed within compartments defined by membranes, and the communication between compartments and with the external environment plays a critical role in the computation. P systems are hierarchical and can be represented graphically, with rules governing the production, consumption, and movement of objects within and between regions. While these systems have largely remained theoretical,<ref>{{US Patent|20090124506}}</ref> some have been shown to have the potential to solve NP-complete problems and have been proposed as hardware implementations for unconventional computing.
==Biological approaches==
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