Content deleted Content added
link Sending, article has been made |
Tags: Reverted Visual edit |
||
Line 44:
''Constitutive models'' hold that meaning is "reflexively constructed, maintained, or negotiated in the act of communicating".{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 69]|loc=constitutive models}} This means that communication is not just the exchange of pre-established bundles of information but a creative process, unlike the outlook found in many transmission models.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 2]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}} According to Robert Craig, this implies that communication is a basic social phenomenon that cannot be explained through psychological, cultural, economic, or other factors. Instead, communication is to be seen as the cause of other social processes and not as their result.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA177 176–7]}} Constitutive models are closely related to [[Social constructionism|constructionist]] models, which see communication as the basic process responsible for how people understand, represent, and experience reality. According to social constructionists, like [[George Herbert Mead]], reality is not something wholly external but depends on how it is [[concept]]ualized, which happens through communication.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 69]|loc=constructionism}} |2={{harvnb|Morel|Spector|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=112CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT127 127]}} |3={{harvnb|Trenholm|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2r0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 60]}} |4={{harvnb|Scott|Marshall|2009|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181;jsessionid=A1623E3458FCA323C4BDA9C013BE7253 social constructionism]}} |5={{harvnb|Lock|Strong|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nASJ5WEMsKMC&pg=PA122 122–123]}} }}</ref>
=== Interpersonal and intrapersonal Communication ===
[[File:Barker & wiseman - model of intrapersonal communication - text.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Intrapersonal communication#Models|Model of intrapersonal communication]] by Larry L. Barker and Gordon Wiseman. The left side of the diagram shows the start of the process: external and internal stimuli (red and violet arrows) are perceived. This triggers various cognitive processes (green areas) involved in the interpretation of the stimuli. These processes result in the generation and transmission of new stimuli, which are again perceived.{{sfn|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=174}}]]
[[Interpersonal communication]] is communication between two distinct persons, like when greeting someone on the street or making a phone call.{{sfn|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=173}}{{sfn|Lederman|2002|p=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/intrapersonal-communication 490–2]|loc=Intrapersonal communication}}{{sfn|Selnow|Crano|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=usrTIGmPucEC&pg=PA124 124]}} [[Intrapersonal communication]], in contrast, is communication with oneself.{{sfn|UMN staff|2010}}{{sfn|Danesi|2009|p=164}} An example is a person thinking to themself that they should bring in the laundry from outside because it is about to rain.{{sfn|Koutoukidis|Funnell|Lawrence|Hughson|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iyGLjn0Md0sC&pg=PA446 446]}} Most models of communication focus on interpersonal communication by assuming that sender and receiver are distinct persons. They often explore how the sender encodes a message, how this message is transmitted and possibly distorted, and how the receiver decodes and interprets the message.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Wood|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9d4JAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 15–7]}} |2={{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 60]|loc=communication models}} |3={{harvnb|Farley|1992|p=481–484}} |4={{harvnb|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=172}} }}</ref>
Line 73:
According to Aristotle's communication model, the speaker wishes to have an effect on the audience, such as [[Persuasion|persuading]] them of an opinion or a course of action. The same message may have very different effects depending on the audience and the occasion. For this reason, the speaker should take these factors into account and compose their message accordingly.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Eisenberg|Gamble|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8h_fmTfBU3oC&pg=PA25 25]}} Many of the basic elements of the Aristotelian model of communication are still found in contemporary models.{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}}
===
{{main|Lasswell's model of communication}}
[[File:Lasswell's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Visual presentation of Lasswell's model of communication as a linear transmission model.{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8GRgXYeo_kC&pg=PA52 52–3]}}{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}]]
Line 80:
Lasswell's model is often criticized due to its simplicity. An example is that it does not include an explicit discussion of vital factors such as noise and feedback loops. It also does not talk about the influence of physical, emotional, social, and cultural contexts.{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=154|loc=Lasswell's model of communication}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 110]}} These shortcomings have prompted some theorists to expand Lasswell's model. For example, Richard Braddock published an extension in 1958 including two additional questions: "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?".{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}{{sfn|Feicheng|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E4pyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}{{sfn|Braddock|1958|p=88–93}}
=== Shannon and Weaver Modal ===
{{Main|Shannon–Weaver model}}
[[File:Shannon-Weaver_model_of_communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Shannon–Weaver model of communication {{sfn|Weaver|1998|p=7}}]]
Line 89:
The Shannon–Weaver model has been influential in the fields of communication theory and [[information theory]].{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 6–10]|loc=1. Communication theory}}{{sfn|Januszewski|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mlZsIIoOaSYC&pg=PA29 29]}} However, it has been criticized because it simplifies some parts of the communicative process. For example, it presents communication as a one-way process and not as a dynamic interaction of messages going back and forth between both participants.{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}{{sfn|Marsh|1983|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wtpgvb6o94C&pg=PA358 358]}}
=== Newcomb Modal ===
[[File:Newcomb's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1|alt=Diagram of Newcomb's model of communication|The basic components of Newcomb's model are two communicators (A and B) and a topic (X). The arrows symbolize the orientations the communicators have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 394]}}]]
Newcomb's model was first published by Theodore H. Newcomb in his 1953 paper "An approach to the study of communicative acts".{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 393–404]}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} It is called the ABX model of communication since it understands communication in terms of three components: two parties (A and B) interacting with each other about a topic or object (X). A and B can be persons or groups, such as trade unions or nations. X can be any part of their shared environment like a specific thing or another person.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}} The ABX model differs from earlier models by focusing on the [[social relation]] between the communicators in the form of the orientations or attitudes they have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} The orientations can be favorable or unfavorable and include beliefs. They have a big impact on how communication unfolds. It is relevant, for example, whether A and B like each other and whether they have the same attitude towards X.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}}
Line 98:
An influential expansion of Newcomb's model is due to Westley and MacLean. They introduce the idea of [[asymmetry of information]]: the sender (A) is aware of several topics (X<sub>1</sub> to X<sub>3</sub>) and has to compose the message (X') to communicate to the receiver (B). B's direct perception is limited to only a few of these topics (X<sub>1</sub>B).{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 32–34]|loc=2. Other models}} Another addition is the inclusion of feedback (fBA) from the receiver to the sender.{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} Westley and MacLean also propose a further expansion to account for mass communication. For this purpose, they include an additional component, C, that has the role of a [[gatekeeper]] filtering the original message for the mass audience.{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 32–34]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38–40]}}
=== Schramm Modal ===
{{main|Schramm's model of communication}}
[[File:Schramm's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Schramm's model of communication differs from earlier models by including a feedback loop.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 8]|loc=How communication works}}]]
Line 118:
All these steps are creative processes that select some features to be included.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=112-3|loc=Gerbner's model of communication}} For example, the event is never perceived in its entirety. Instead, the communicator has to select and interpret its most salient features. The same happens when encoding the message: the percept is usually too complex to be fully communicated and only its most significant aspects are expressed. Selection also concerns the choice of the code and channel to be used. The availability of a channel differs from person to person and from situation to situation. For example, many people do not have access to mass media, like television, to send their message to a wide audience.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24–30]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CsWBdJzPcBcC&pg=PA57 57–8]}} Gerbner's emphasis on the relation between message and reality has been influential for subsequent models of communication. However, Gerbner's model still suffers from many of the limitations of the earlier models it is based on. An example is the focus on the linear transmission of information without an in-depth discussion of the role of feedback loops. Another issue concerns the question of how meaning is created.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24–30]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Beck|Bennett|Wall|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WICsoZhPm1IC&pg=PP105 93–102]}}{{sfn|McKeown|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1f6JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}}
=== Berlo Modal ===
{{main|Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication}}
[[File:SMCR model - full.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of the SMCR model|upright=1.5|Berlo's model includes a detailed discussion of the four main components of communication and their different aspects.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 72]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Mannan|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-slBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 19]}}]]
Line 127:
For the message, the main factors are code, content, and treatment, each of which can be analyzed in terms of its structure and its elements. The code is the [[sign system]] used to express the message, like a [[language]]. The content is the idea or information expressed in the message. Choosing an appropriate content and the right code to express it matters for successful communication. Berlo uses the term ''treatment'' to refer to this selection. It reflects the style of the source as a communicator. The channel is the medium and process of how the message is transmitted.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 54–63]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Taylor|1962|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}} Berlo analyzes it mainly based on the [[five senses]] used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 12–13, 21]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT112 94]}}{{sfn|Januszewski|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mlZsIIoOaSYC&pg=PA30 30]}} The SMCR model has inspired subsequent theorists.{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}} However, it is often criticized based on its simplicity because it does not discuss feedback loops and because it does not give enough emphasis on noise and other barriers to communication.{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT112 94]}}{{sfn|Taylor|1962|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}}
=== Dance Modal ===
[[File:Dance's helical model of communication.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of Dance's helical model of communication|Dance's helical model understands communication in analogy to an upward-moving and widening helix.]]
[[Frank E. X. Dance|Frank E. Dance]]'s helical model of communication was initially published in his 1967 book ''Human Communication Theory''.{{sfn|Dance|1967}}{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}{{sfn|Ehrlich|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GmlrWZ_xE1kC&pg=PA98 98–9]}} It is intended as a response to and an improvement over linear and circular models by stressing the dynamic nature of communication and how it changes the participants. Dance sees the fault of linear models as their attempt to understand communication as a linear flow of messages from a sender to a receiver. According to him, this fault is avoided by circular models, which include a feedback loop through which messages are exchanged back and forth. Dance criticizes the circular approach by holding that it "suggests that communication comes back, full circle, to exactly the same point from which it started".{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKP-63dSKNsC&pg=PA71 71]}}
Dance holds that a [[helix]] is a more adequate representation of the process of communication since it implies that there is always a forward movement. It shows how the content and structure of earlier communicative acts influence the content and structure of later communicative acts. In this regard, communication has a lasting effect on the communicators and evolves continuously as a process. The upward widening movement of the helix represents a form of [[optimism]] by seeing communication as a means of growth, learning, and improvement.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}{{sfn|Ehrlich|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GmlrWZ_xE1kC&pg=PA98 98–9]}} The basic idea behind Dance's helical model of communication is also found in [[education theory]] in the [[spiral approach]] proposed by [[Jerome Bruner]].{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKP-63dSKNsC&pg=PA71 71]}} Dance's model has been criticized based on the claim that it focuses only on some aspects of communication but does not provide a tool for detailed analysis.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}
=== Barnlund Modal ===
{{main|Barnlund's model of communication}}
Barnlund's model is an influential transactional model of communication first published in 1970.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=175–6|loc=Constitutive View of Communication}}{{sfn|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–7]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013}} Its goal is to avoid the inaccuracies of earlier models and account for communication in all its complexity. This includes dismissing the idea that communication is defined as the transmission of ideas from a sender to a receiver.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=175–6|loc=Constitutive View of Communication}} For Barnlund, communication "is the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages".{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=48}} He holds that the world and its objects lack [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] on their own. They are only meaningful to the extent that people [[Interpretation (philosophy)|interpret]] them and assign meaning to them by engaging in the processes of decoding and encoding. In doing so, people try to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding.{{sfn|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–7]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=47}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–22]}}
| |||