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[[File:Common components of models of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram showing the most common components of models of communication|Many models of communication include the idea that a [[Sending|sender]] encodes a message and uses a channel to transmit it to a receiver. Noise may distort the message along the way. The receiver then decodes the message and gives some form of feedback.{{sfn|Fujishin|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sFrheqNL-ukC&pg=PA8 8]}}]]
Models of communication are classified depending on their intended applications and on how they conceptualize the process. General models apply to all forms of communication while specialized models restrict themselves to specific forms, like [[mass communication]]. Linear transmission models understand communication as a one-way process in which a sender transmits an idea to a receiver. Interaction models include a feedback loop through which the receiver responds after getting the message. Transaction models see sending and responding as simultaneous activities. They hold that [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] is created in this process and does not exist prior to it. Constitutive and [[Social constructionism|constructionist]] models stress that communication is a basic phenomenon responsible for how people understand and [[experience]] [[reality]]. [[Interpersonal communication|Interpersonal]] models describe communicative exchanges with other people. They contrast with [[Intrapersonal communication|intrapersonal]] models, which discuss communication with oneself. Models of non-human communication describe communication among other species. Further types include encoding-decoding models, hypodermic models, and relational models.
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The problem of communication was already discussed in [[Ancient Greece]] but the field of [[communication studies]] only developed into a separate research discipline in the middle of the 20th century. All early models were linear transmission models, like [[Lasswell's model]], the [[Shannon–Weaver model]], Gerbner's model, and [[Berlo's model]]. For many purposes, they were later replaced by interaction models, like [[Schramm's model]]. Beginning in the 1970s, transactional models of communication, like [[Barnlund's model]], were proposed to overcome the limitations of interaction models. They constitute the origin of further developments in the form of constitutive models.
Models of communication are representations of the process of [[communication]]. They try to provide a simple explanation of the process by highlighting its most basic characteristics and components.{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}}{{sfn|West|2010}} Communication can be defined as the transmission of ideas. General models of communication try to describe all of its forms, including [[Verbal communication|verbal]] and [[non-verbal communication]] as well as [[visual]], [[Hearing|auditory]], and [[olfactory]] forms.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 1–8]|loc=Introduction}} In the widest sense, communication is not restricted to humans but happens also [[Animal communication|among animals]] and between species. However, models of communication normally focus on [[human communication]] as the paradigmatic form.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} They usually involve some type of interaction between two or more parties in which messages are exchanged.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 60]|loc=communication models}}{{sfn|Craig|1999}} The process as a whole is very complex, which is why models of communication only present the most salient features by showing how the main components operate and interact.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 10–12, 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} They usually do so in the form of a simplified visualization and ignore some aspects for the sake of simplicity.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110240450/html 7–10]|loc=Introduction}}
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Models of communication serve various functions. Their simplified presentation helps students and researchers identify the main steps of communication and apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 10–12, 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} The unified picture they provide makes it easier to describe and explain the observed phenomena. Models of communication can guide the formulation of [[hypotheses]] and [[prediction]]s about how communicative processes will unfold and show how these processes can be measured.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}} One of their goals is to show how to improve communication, for example, by avoiding distortions through [[noise]] or by discovering how [[Society|societal]] and [[Economy|economic]] factors affect the quality of communication.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 1–8]|loc=Introduction}}
Many basic concepts reappear in the different models, like "sender", "[[Receiver (information theory)|receiver]]", "[[message]]", "[[Communication channel|channel]]", "[[signal]]", "[[encoding]]", "decoding", "[[Communication noise|noise]]", "[[feedback]]", and "[[Context (language use)|context]]". Their exact meanings vary slightly from model to model and sometimes different terms are used for the same ideas. Simple models only rely on a few of these concepts while more complex models include many of them.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 10–12, 23–25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}
The ''sender'' is responsible for creating the message and sending it to the ''receiver''. Some theorists use the terms ''source'' and ''destination'' instead. The ''message'' itself can be verbal or non-verbal and contains some form of [[information]].{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8GRgXYeo_kC&pg=PA91 91]}} The process of ''encoding'' translates the message into a signal that can be conveyed using a channel. The ''channel'' is the sensory route on which the signal travels. For example, expressing one's thoughts in a speech encodes them as [[sound]]s, which are transmitted using air as a channel. ''Decoding'' is the reverse process of encoding: it happens when the signal is translated back into a message.{{sfn|Sereno|Mortensen|1970|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vQwEAQAAIAAJ 122–3]|loc=Communication Theory: Decoding-Encoding}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 125]|loc=encoding}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 44]|loc=channel}} ''Noise'' is any influence that interferes with the message reaching its destination. Some theorists distinguish between environmental noise and [[Semantics|semantic]] noise. Environmental noise distorts the signal on its way to the receiver. Semantic noise occurs during encoding or decoding, for example, when an ambiguous word in the message is not interpreted by the receiver as it was meant by the sender.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 296]|loc=noise}} ''Feedback'' means that the receiver responds to the message by conveying some information back to the original sender.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}} ''Context'' consists in the circumstances of the communication. It is a very wide term that can apply to the physical environment and the [[mental state]] of the communicators as well as the general social situation.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 72]|loc=context}}
Models of communication are classified in many ways and the proposed classifications often overlap. Some models are general in the sense that they aim to describe all forms of communication. Others are specialized: they only apply to specific fields or areas. For example, models of [[mass communication]] are specialized models that do not aim to give a universal account of communication.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24, 30]|loc=2. Other models}} Another contrast is between linear and non-linear models. Most early models of communication are linear models. They present communication as a unidirectional process in which messages flow from the communicator to the [[audience]]. Non-linear models, on the other hand, are multi-directional: messages are sent back and forth between participants. According to Uma Narula, linear models describe single acts of communication while non-linear models describe the whole process.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 12–14]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}
[[File:Linearmodel.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Linear transmission model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]
Linear transmission models describe communication as a one-way process. In it, a sender intentionally conveys a message to a receiver. The reception of the message is the endpoint of this process. Since there is no feedback loop, the sender may not know whether the message reached its intended destination. Most early models were transmission models. Due to their linear nature, they are often too simple to capture the dynamic aspects of various forms of communication, such as regular face-to-face conversation.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} By focusing only on the sender, they leave out the audience's perspective. For example, listening usually does not just happen, but is an active process involving [[Understanding|listening skills]] and interpretation.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15–17]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} However, some forms of communication can be accurately described by them, such as many types of [[computer-mediated communication]]. This applies, for example, to [[text messaging]], sending an email, posting a blog, or sharing something on social media.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}{{sfn|Manuela|Clara|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FjFtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} Some theorists, like Uma Narula, talk of "action models" instead of linear transmission models to stress how they only focus on the actions of the sender.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} Linear transmission models include Aristotle's, [[Lasswell's model of communication|Lasswell]]'s, [[Shannon–Weaver model|Shannon-Weaver]]'s and [[Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication|Berlo]]'s model.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6xrNrpSZKxsC&pg=PA41 41]}}{{sfn|Hakanen|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oFHgZaiNhWUC&pg=PA28 28]}}
[[File:Interaction_models_of_communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Interaction model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]
For interaction models, the participants in communication alternate the positions of sender and receiver. So upon receiving a message, a new message is generated and returned to the original sender as a form of feedback. In this regard, communication is a two-way process. This adds more complexity to the model since the participants are both senders and receivers and they alternate between these two positions.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}
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For interaction models, these steps happen one after the other: first, one message is sent and received, later another message is returned as feedback, etc. Such feedback loops make it possible for the sender to assess whether their message was received and had the intended effect or whether it was distorted by noise.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15–19]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} For example, interaction models can be used to describe a conversation through [[instant messaging]]: the sender sends a message and then has to wait for the receiver to react. Another example is a question/answer session where one person asks a question and then waits for another person to answer. Interaction models usually put more emphasis on the interactive process and less on the technical problem of how the message is conveyed at each step. For this reason, more prominence is given to the context that shapes the exchange of messages. This includes the physical context, like the distance between the speakers, and the psychological context, which includes mental and emotional factors like stress and anxiety.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} [[Schramm's model]] is one of the earliest interaction models.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}
[[File:Transactionalmodel.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Transaction model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]
Transaction models depart from interaction models in two ways. On the one hand, they understand sending and responding as simultaneous processes. This can be used to describe how listeners use non-verbal communication, like [[body posture]] and [[facial expression]]s, to give some form of feedback. This way, they can signal whether they agree with the message while the speaker is talking. This feedback may in turn influence the speaker's message while it is being produced. On the other hand, transactional models stress that meaning is created in the process of communication and does not exist prior to it. This is often combined with the claim that communication creates social realities like relationships, [[Identity (social science)|personal identities]], and [[communities]].{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=48}} This also affects the communicators themselves on various levels, such as their thoughts and feelings as well as their social identities.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 387]|loc=Shannon and Weaver's model}}
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Transaction models usually put more emphasis on contexts and how they shape the exchange of information. They are sometimes divided into social, relational, and cultural contexts. Social contexts include explicit and implicit rules about what form of message and feedback is acceptable. An example is that one should not interrupt people or that greetings should be returned. Relational contexts are more specific in that they concern the previous relationship and shared history of the communicators. This includes factors like whether the participants are friends, neighbors, co-workers, or rivals. The cultural context encompasses the social identities of the communicators, such as race, gender, nationality, sexual orientation, and social class.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=58}} [[Barnlund's model of communication|Barnlund's model]] is an influential early transaction model.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}
''Constitutive models'' hold that meaning is "reflexively constructed, maintained, or negotiated in the act of communicating".{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 69]|loc=constitutive models}} This means that communication is not just the exchange of pre-established bundles of information but a creative process, unlike the outlook found in many transmission models.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 2]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}} According to Robert Craig, this implies that communication is a basic social phenomenon that cannot be explained through psychological, cultural, economic, or other factors. Instead, communication is to be seen as the cause of other social processes and not as their result.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA177 176–7]}} Constitutive models are closely related to [[Social constructionism|constructionist]] models, which see communication as the basic process responsible for how people understand, represent, and experience reality. According to social constructionists, like [[George Herbert Mead]], reality is not something wholly external but depends on how it is [[concept]]ualized, which happens through communication.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 69]|loc=constructionism}} |2={{harvnb|Morel|Spector|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=112CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT127 127]}} |3={{harvnb|Trenholm|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M2r0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT60 60]}} |4={{harvnb|Scott|Marshall|2009|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181;jsessionid=A1623E3458FCA323C4BDA9C013BE7253 social constructionism]}} |5={{harvnb|Lock|Strong|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nASJ5WEMsKMC&pg=PA122 122–123]}} }}</ref>
[[File:Barker & wiseman - model of intrapersonal communication - text.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Intrapersonal communication#Models|Model of intrapersonal communication]] by Larry L. Barker and Gordon Wiseman. The left side of the diagram shows the start of the process: external and internal stimuli (red and violet arrows) are perceived. This triggers various cognitive processes (green areas) involved in the interpretation of the stimuli. These processes result in the generation and transmission of new stimuli, which are again perceived.{{sfn|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=174}}]]
[[Interpersonal communication]] is communication between two distinct persons, like when greeting someone on the street or making a phone call.{{sfn|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=173}}{{sfn|Lederman|2002|p=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/intrapersonal-communication 490–2]|loc=Intrapersonal communication}}{{sfn|Selnow|Crano|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=usrTIGmPucEC&pg=PA124 124]}} [[Intrapersonal communication]], in contrast, is communication with oneself.{{sfn|UMN staff|2010}}{{sfn|Danesi|2009|p=164}} An example is a person thinking to themself that they should bring in the laundry from outside because it is about to rain.{{sfn|Koutoukidis|Funnell|Lawrence|Hughson|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iyGLjn0Md0sC&pg=PA446 446]}} Most models of communication focus on interpersonal communication by assuming that sender and receiver are distinct persons. They often explore how the sender encodes a message, how this message is transmitted and possibly distorted, and how the receiver decodes and interprets the message.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Wood|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9d4JAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT34 15–7]}} |2={{harvnb|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 60]|loc=communication models}} |3={{harvnb|Farley|1992|p=481–484}} |4={{harvnb|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=172}} }}</ref>
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However, some models are specifically formulated for intrapersonal communication. Many of them focus on the idea that intrapersonal communication starts with the [[perception]] of internal and external [[Stimulus (psychology)|stimuli]] carrying information. These stimuli are processed and interpreted in various ways, for example, by classifying them and by ascribing symbolic meaning to them. Later steps include thinking about them, organizing information, and then encoding the ideas conceived this way in a behavioral response. This response can itself produce new stimuli and act as a form of feedback loop for continued intrapersonal communication.<ref>{{multiref2|1={{harvnb|Barker|Wiseman|1966|p=173-7}} |2={{harvnb|Deetz|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YXOXDDHw0vAC&pg=PA633 633-4]}} |3={{harvnb|Vocate|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Jnc_rV2hjgcC&pg=PA181 181–2]}} |4={{harvnb|Barnlund|2013|p=43-8}} }}</ref> Some models of communication try to provide a perspective that includes both interpersonal and intrapersonal communication in order to show how these two phenomena influence each other.{{sfn|Wodak|Koller|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IFVas4Lwqz0C&pg=PA26 26]}}{{sfn|Hill|Watson|Rivers|Joyce|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SdNEBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 22–5]}}{{sfn|Lederman|2002|p=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/intrapersonal-communication 490–2]|loc=Intrapersonal communication}}
[[File:Stages of plant communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram of the steps of plant communication|Steps of plant communication{{sfn|Karban|2015|p=7}}]]
The discipline of communication studies and the models of communication proposed in it are not restricted to human communication. They include discussions of communication among other species, like non-human animals and plants. Models of non-human communication usually stress the practical aspects of communication, ie., what effects it has on behavior. An example is that communication provides an [[Evolution|evolutionary]] advantage to the communicators.<ref>{{multiref2 |1={{harvnb|Ferretti|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLSEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35–6]}} |2={{harvnb|Baluška|Ninkovic|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9hUpvAoY_HAC&pg=PA7 7, 128]}} |3={{harvnb|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-1-communication-history-and-forms/ 1.1 Communication: History and Forms]}} |4={{harvnb|Carey|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N2aRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 25]}} }}</ref>
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Some models of animal communication are similar to models of human communication in that they understand the process as an exchange of information. This exchange helps the communicators to reduce uncertainty and to act in a way that is beneficial to them.{{sfn|Balda|Pepperberg|Kamil|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=504iRS01AK0C&pg=PA227 227–9]}} A further approach is discussed in the manipulative model of animal communication. It argues that the central aspect of communication does not consist in the exchange of information but in causing changes to the behavior of other organisms. This influence provides primarily a benefit to the sender and does not need to involve the transmission of messages. In this way, the sender "exploits another animal's ... muscle power".<ref>{{harvnb|Krebs|Dawkins|1995|p=381}}, cited in {{harvnb|Ferretti|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLSEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35–6]}}</ref> A slightly different approach focuses more on the [[Cooperation|cooperative]] aspect of communication and holds that both sender and receiver benefit from the exchange.{{sfn|Ferretti|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dLSEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35–6]}} Models of plant communication usually understand communication in terms of biochemical changes and responses. According to Richard Karban, this process starts with a cue that is emitted by a sender and then perceived by a receiver. The receiver processes this information to translate it into some kind of response.{{sfn|Karban|2015|p=7}}{{sfn|Vieira|Gagliano|Ryan|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ELpRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 40]}}{{sfn|Baluška|Ninkovic|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9hUpvAoY_HAC&pg=PA7 7, 128]}}
Additional classifications of communication models have been suggested. The term ''encoding-decoding model'' is used for any model that includes the phases of encoding and decoding in its description of communication. Such models stress that to send information, a code is necessary. A code is a sign system used to express ideas and interpret messages. Encoding-decoding models are sometimes contrasted with ''inferential models''. For the latter, the receiver is not only interested in the information sent but tries to infer the sender's [[intention]] behind formulating the message.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 125]|loc=encoding-decoding model}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 51]|loc=code}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C inferential model]}}
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''Difference models'' emphasize the role of [[gender]] and [[Race (human categorization)|racial]] differences in the process of communication. Some posit, for example, that men and women have different communication styles and aim to achieve different goals through communication.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 101]|loc=difference model}}{{sfn|Orbe|Harris|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G7-ZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 143]}}
Communication was studied as early as [[Ancient Greece]] and one of the first models of communication is due to [[Aristotle]].{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}} However, the field of communication studies only developed in the 20th century into a separate research discipline. In its early stages, it often borrowed models and concepts from other disciplines, such as [[psychology]], [[sociology]], [[anthropology]], and [[political science]]. But as it developed as a science, it started to rely more and more on its own models and concepts. Beginning in the 1940s and the following decades, many new models of communication were developed. Most of the early models were linear transmission models. For many purposes, they were replaced by non-linear models such as interaction, transaction, and convergence models.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 1–8]|loc=Introduction}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 60]|loc=communication models}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110240450/html 1–7]|loc=Introduction}}
One of the earliest models of communication was given by Aristotle.{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}}{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} He speaks of communication in his treatise [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]] and characterizes it as a [[techne]] or [[The arts|an art]].{{sfn|Rosenfield|2011|p=61–62|loc=III. An Aristotelian Theory of Communication}} His model is primarily concerned with public speaking and is made up of five elements: the speaker, the message, the audience, the occasion, and the effect.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Eisenberg|Gamble|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8h_fmTfBU3oC&pg=PA25 25]}}
According to Aristotle's communication model, the speaker wishes to have an effect on the audience, such as [[Persuasion|persuading]] them of an opinion or a course of action. The same message may have very different effects depending on the audience and the occasion. For this reason, the speaker should take these factors into account and compose their message accordingly.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 25]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Eisenberg|Gamble|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8h_fmTfBU3oC&pg=PA25 25]}} Many of the basic elements of the Aristotelian model of communication are still found in contemporary models.{{sfn|Ruben|2001|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/media/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/models-communication Models Of Communication]}}
=== Lasswell ===
{{main|Lasswell's model of communication}}
[[File:Lasswell's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Visual presentation of Lasswell's model of communication as a linear transmission model.{{sfn|Steinberg|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8GRgXYeo_kC&pg=PA52 52–3]}}{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}]]
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Lasswell's model is often criticized due to its simplicity. An example is that it does not include an explicit discussion of vital factors such as noise and feedback loops. It also does not talk about the influence of physical, emotional, social, and cultural contexts.{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=154|loc=Lasswell's model of communication}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 110]}} These shortcomings have prompted some theorists to expand Lasswell's model. For example, Richard Braddock published an extension in 1958 including two additional questions: "Under What Circumstances?" and "For What Purpose?".{{sfn|Sapienza|Iyer|Veenstra|2015|p=599–622}}{{sfn|Feicheng|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E4pyEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}}{{sfn|Braddock|1958|p=88–93}}
{{Main|Shannon–Weaver model}}
[[File:Shannon-Weaver_model_of_communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Shannon–Weaver model of communication {{sfn|Weaver|1998|p=7}}]]
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The Shannon–Weaver model has been influential in the fields of communication theory and [[information theory]].{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 6–10]|loc=1. Communication theory}}{{sfn|Januszewski|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mlZsIIoOaSYC&pg=PA29 29]}} However, it has been criticized because it simplifies some parts of the communicative process. For example, it presents communication as a one-way process and not as a dynamic interaction of messages going back and forth between both participants.{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}{{sfn|Marsh|1983|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wtpgvb6o94C&pg=PA358 358]}}
[[File:Newcomb's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1|alt=Diagram of Newcomb's model of communication|The basic components of Newcomb's model are two communicators (A and B) and a topic (X). The arrows symbolize the orientations the communicators have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 394]}}]]
Newcomb's model was first published by Theodore H. Newcomb in his 1953 paper "An approach to the study of communicative acts".{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 393–404]}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} It is called the ABX model of communication since it understands communication in terms of three components: two parties (A and B) interacting with each other about a topic or object (X). A and B can be persons or groups, such as trade unions or nations. X can be any part of their shared environment like a specific thing or another person.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}} The ABX model differs from earlier models by focusing on the [[social relation]] between the communicators in the form of the orientations or attitudes they have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} The orientations can be favorable or unfavorable and include beliefs. They have a big impact on how communication unfolds. It is relevant, for example, whether A and B like each other and whether they have the same attitude towards X.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}}
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An influential expansion of Newcomb's model is due to Westley and MacLean. They introduce the idea of [[asymmetry of information]]: the sender (A) is aware of several topics (X<sub>1</sub> to X<sub>3</sub>) and has to compose the message (X') to communicate to the receiver (B). B's direct perception is limited to only a few of these topics (X<sub>1</sub>B).{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 32–34]|loc=2. Other models}} Another addition is the inclusion of feedback (fBA) from the receiver to the sender.{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}} Westley and MacLean also propose a further expansion to account for mass communication. For this purpose, they include an additional component, C, that has the role of a [[gatekeeper]] filtering the original message for the mass audience.{{sfn|McQuail|2008|p=[https://www.wiley.com/en-us/The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Communication%2C+12+Volume+Set-p-9781405131995 3143–9]|loc=Models of communication}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 32–34]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38–40]}}
{{main|Schramm's model of communication}}
[[File:Schramm's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Schramm's model of communication differs from earlier models by including a feedback loop.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 8]|loc=How communication works}}]]
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In the 1970s, Schramm proposed modifications to his original model to take into account the discoveries made in [[communication studies]] in the preceding decades.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=6}} His new approach gives special emphasis to the relation between the participants. The relation determines the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 364]|loc=relational models}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=7-8}}
[[George Gerbner]] first published his model in his 1956 paper ''Toward a General Model of Communication''.{{sfn|Gerbner|1956|p=171}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=112-3|loc=Gerbner's model of communication}} It is a linear transmission model. It is based on the Shannon–Weaver model and Lasswell's model but expands them in various ways.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24–30]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=112-3|loc=Gerbner's model of communication}}{{sfn|Berger|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AfTl2r4K_wUC&pg=PA14 14]}} It aims to provide a general account of all forms of communication.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 21, 31–32]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Beck|Bennett|Wall|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WICsoZhPm1IC&pg=PP105 93–102]}} One of its innovations is that it starts not with a message or an idea but with an [[Event (philosophy)|event]]. The communicating agent perceives it and composes a message about it.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=112-3|loc=Gerbner's model of communication}}{{sfn|Beck|Bennett|Wall|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WICsoZhPm1IC&pg=PP105 93–102]}}
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All these steps are creative processes that select some features to be included.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=112-3|loc=Gerbner's model of communication}} For example, the event is never perceived in its entirety. Instead, the communicator has to select and interpret its most salient features. The same happens when encoding the message: the percept is usually too complex to be fully communicated and only its most significant aspects are expressed. Selection also concerns the choice of the code and channel to be used. The availability of a channel differs from person to person and from situation to situation. For example, many people do not have access to mass media, like television, to send their message to a wide audience.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24–30]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Holmes|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CsWBdJzPcBcC&pg=PA57 57–8]}} Gerbner's emphasis on the relation between message and reality has been influential for subsequent models of communication. However, Gerbner's model still suffers from many of the limitations of the earlier models it is based on. An example is the focus on the linear transmission of information without an in-depth discussion of the role of feedback loops. Another issue concerns the question of how meaning is created.{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 24–30]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Beck|Bennett|Wall|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WICsoZhPm1IC&pg=PP105 93–102]}}{{sfn|McKeown|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1f6JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34]}}
{{main|Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication}}
[[File:SMCR model - full.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of the SMCR model|upright=1.5|Berlo's model includes a detailed discussion of the four main components of communication and their different aspects.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 72]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Mannan|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G-slBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 19]}}]]
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For the message, the main factors are code, content, and treatment, each of which can be analyzed in terms of its structure and its elements. The code is the [[sign system]] used to express the message, like a [[language]]. The content is the idea or information expressed in the message. Choosing an appropriate content and the right code to express it matters for successful communication. Berlo uses the term ''treatment'' to refer to this selection. It reflects the style of the source as a communicator. The channel is the medium and process of how the message is transmitted.{{sfn|Berlo|1960|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0k9IAAAAMAAJ 54–63]|loc=3. The fidelity of communication}}{{sfn|Taylor|1962|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}} Berlo analyzes it mainly based on the [[five senses]] used to decode messages: seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 12–13, 21]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT112 94]}}{{sfn|Januszewski|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mlZsIIoOaSYC&pg=PA30 30]}} The SMCR model has inspired subsequent theorists.{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}} However, it is often criticized based on its simplicity because it does not discuss feedback loops and because it does not give enough emphasis on noise and other barriers to communication.{{sfn|Pande|2020|p=[https://sk.sagepub.com/reference/the-sage-encyclopedia-of-mass-media-and-society/i15120.xml 1588–1589]|loc=SMCR Model}}{{sfn|Tengan|Aigbavboa|Thwala|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8nQhEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT112 94]}}{{sfn|Taylor|1962|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/43093688 8–10]}}
[[File:Dance's helical model of communication.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of Dance's helical model of communication|Dance's helical model understands communication in analogy to an upward-moving and widening helix.]]
[[Frank E. X. Dance|Frank
Dance holds that a [[helix]] is a more adequate representation of the process of communication since it implies that there is always a forward movement. It shows how the content and structure of earlier communicative acts influence the content and structure of later communicative acts. In this regard, communication has a lasting effect on the communicators and evolves continuously as a process. The upward widening movement of the helix represents a form of [[optimism]] by seeing communication as a means of growth, learning, and improvement.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}{{sfn|Ehrlich|2000|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GmlrWZ_xE1kC&pg=PA98 98–9]}} The basic idea behind Dance's helical model of communication is also found in [[education theory]] in the [[spiral approach]] proposed by [[Jerome Bruner]].{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XKP-63dSKNsC&pg=PA71 71]}} Dance's model has been criticized based on the claim that it focuses only on some aspects of communication but does not provide a tool for detailed analysis.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rn5ACwAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 16–22]}}
{{main|Barnlund's model of communication}}
Barnlund's model is an influential transactional model of communication first published in 1970.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=175–6|loc=Constitutive View of Communication}}{{sfn|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–7]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013}} Its goal is to avoid the inaccuracies of earlier models and account for communication in all its complexity. This includes dismissing the idea that communication is defined as the transmission of ideas from a sender to a receiver.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=175–6|loc=Constitutive View of Communication}} For Barnlund, communication "is the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages".{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=48}} He holds that the world and its objects lack [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] on their own. They are only meaningful to the extent that people [[Interpretation (philosophy)|interpret]] them and assign meaning to them by engaging in the processes of decoding and encoding. In doing so, people try to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding.{{sfn|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–7]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=47}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–22]}}
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Barnlund's model is based on the idea that communication consists of decoding cues by ascribing meaning to them and encoding appropriate responses to them.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–22]}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhHiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=57-60}} Barnlund distinguishes between public, private, and behavioral cues. Public cues are accessible to anyone in the situation, such as a tree in a park or a table in a room. Private cues are only available to one person, like a coin in one's pocket or an itch on one's wrist. Behavioral cues are under the control of the communicators and constitute the main vehicles of communication. They include verbal behavior, like discussing a business proposal, and non-verbal behavior, like raising one's eyebrows or sitting down in a chair.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IdGBCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 20–22]}}{{sfn|Barnlund|2013|p=54}}{{sfn|Powell|Powell|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=86KMAgAAQBAJ 10–11]}} Barnlund's model has been influential, both for its innovations and for its criticisms of earlier models.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=175–6|loc=Constitutive View of Communication}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhHiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} Some objections to it include that it is not equally useful for all forms of communication and that it does not explain how exactly meaning is produced.{{sfn|Lawson|Gill|Feekery|Witsel|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fIOWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA77 76–7]}}
▲* '''''Citations'''''
{{Reflist|30em}}
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