Unconventional computing: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 08:51, 26 October 2023

Revision as of 12:09, 4 November 2023

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==Background==

The general theory of [[computation]] allows for a variety of models.{{clarify|issue="models" seems like an undefined technical term or needless jargon this early in article|date=December 2022}} Computing technology was first developed using [[Machine (mechanical)|mechanical]] systems and then evolved into the use of electronic devices. Other fields of [[modern physics]] provide additional avenues for development.

===Computational model===

{{main|Computational model}}

Computational models use computer programs to simulate and study complex systems using an algorithmic or mechanistic approach. They are commonly used to study complex nonlinear systems for which simple analytical solutions are not readily available.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Computational Modeling|url=https://www.nibib.nih.gov/science-education/science-topics/computational-modeling#:~:text=Computational%20modeling%20is%20the%20use,characterize%20the%20system%20being%20studied.|access-date=2021-04-07|website=www.nibib.nih.gov}}</ref> Experimentation with the model is done by adjusting parameters in the computer and studying the differences in the outcome.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Computational models - Latest research and news {{!}} Nature|url=https://www.nature.com/subjects/computational-models|access-date=2021-04-08|website=www.nature.com}}</ref> Operation theories of the model can be derived/ or deduced from these computational experiments. Examples of computational models include weather forecasting models, earth simulator models, flight simulator models, molecular protein folding models, and neural network models.

===Mechanical computing===

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Historically, [[mechanical computer]]s were used in industry before the advent of the [[transistor]].

Mechanical computers retain some interest today, both in research and as analogue computers. Some mechanical computers have a theoretical or didactic relevance, such as [[billiard-ball computer]]s, while hydraulic ones like the [[MONIAC]] or the [[Water integrator]] were used effectively.<ref name=pen-empnew>[[Roger Penrose|Penrose, Roger]]: The Emperor's New Mind. Oxford University Press, 1990. See also corresponding [[The Emperor's New Mind|article on it]].</ref>

While some are actually simulated, others are not{{clarify|vacuous|date=December 2016}}. No attempt is made{{dubious|date=December 2016}} to build a functioning computer through the mechanical collisions of billiard balls. The [[domino computer]] is another theoretically interesting mechanical computing scheme.{{why|date=December 2016}}

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Unconventional computing is, according to a{{which|date=December 2016}} conference description,<ref>{{cite web | title = Unconventional computation Conference 2007 | url = http://cnls.lanl.gov/uc07/ }}</ref> "an interdisciplinary research area with the main goal to enrich or go beyond the standard models, such as the [[Von Neumann architecture|Von Neumann computer architecture]] and the [[Turing machine]], which have dominated computer science for more than half a century". These methods model their computational operations based on non-standard paradigms, and are currently mostly in the research and development stage.

This computing behavior can be "simulated"{{clarify|date=December 2016}} using the classical silicon-based micro-transistors or [[solid state (electronics)|solid state]] computing technologies, but aimit aims to achieve a new kind of computing.

==Generic approaches==

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===Reservoir computing===

{{main|Reservoir computing}}

Reservoir computing is a computational framework derived from recurrent neural network theory that involves mapping input signals into higher -dimensional computational spaces through the dynamics of a fixed, non-linear system called a reservoir. The reservoir, which can be virtual or physical, is made up of individual non-linear units that are connected in recurrent loops, allowing it to store information. Training is performed only at the readout stage, as the reservoir dynamics are fixed, and this framework allows for the use of naturally available systems, both classical and quantum mechanical, to reduce the effective computational cost. One key benefit of reservoir computing is that it allows for a simple and fast learning algorithm, as well as hardware implementation through [[Reservoir computing#Physical reservoir computers|physical reservoirs]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tanaka|first1=Gouhei|last2=Yamane|first2=Toshiyuki|last3=Héroux|first3=Jean Benoit|last4=Nakane|first4=Ryosho|last5=Kanazawa|first5=Naoki|last6=Takeda|first6=Seiji|last7=Numata|first7=Hidetoshi|last8=Nakano|first8=Daiju|last9=Hirose|first9=Akira|date=2019-07-01|title=Recent advances in physical reservoir computing: A review|journal=Neural Networks|language=en|volume=115|pages=100–123|doi=10.1016/j.neunet.2019.03.005|pmid=30981085 |issn=0893-6080|doi-access=free|arxiv=1808.04962}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Röhm|first1=André|last2=Lüdge|first2=Kathy|date=2018-08-03|title=Multiplexed networks: reservoir computing with virtual and real nodes|journal=Journal of Physics Communications|volume=2|issue=8|pages=085007|bibcode=2018JPhCo...2h5007R|doi=10.1088/2399-6528/aad56d|arxiv=1802.08590 |issn=2399-6528|doi-access=free}}</ref> <br />

===Tangible computing===

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[[File:SandScape.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[http://tangible.media.mit.edu/project/sandscape/ SandScape], a tangible computing device installed in the [[Children's Creativity Museum]] in San Francisco]]

Tangible computing refers to the use of physical objects as user interfaces for interacting with digital information. This approach aims to take advantage of the human ability to grasp and manipulate physical objects in order to facilitate collaboration, learning, and design. Characteristics of tangible user interfaces include the coupling of physical representations to underlying digital information and the embodiment of mechanisms for interactive control.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1145/1347390.1347392 |chapter=Tangible bits |title=Proceedings of the 2nd international conference on Tangible and embedded interaction - TEI '08 |year=2008 |last1=Ishii |first1=Hiroshi |pages=xv |isbn=978-1-60558-004-3 |s2cid=18166868 }}</ref> There are also five defining properties of tangible user interfaces, including the ability to multiplex both input and output in space, concurrent access and manipulation of interface components, strong specific devices, spatially aware computational devices, and spatial re-configurabilityreconfigurability of devices.<ref name="KimMaher2008">{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Mi Jeong |last2=Maher |first2=Mary Lou |title=The Impact of Tangible User Interfaces on Designers' Spatial Cognition |journal=Human–Computer Interaction |date=30 May 2008 |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=101–137 |doi=10.1080/07370020802016415 |s2cid=1268154 }}</ref>

===Human computing===

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{{main|Molecular scale electronics|Chemical computing|Molecular logic gate}}

Molecular computing is an unconventional form of computing that utilizes chemical reactions to perform computations. Data is represented by variations in chemical concentrations,<ref name="ijirt.org">{{cite journal |url=http://www.ijirt.org/paperpublished/IJIRT101166_PAPER.pdf |title=Chemical Computing: The different way of computing|first1=Ambar |last1=Kumar|first2=Akash Kumar | last2 =Mahato| first3=Akashdeep |last3=Singh |journal=International Journal of Innovative Research in Technology |volume =1| issue =6 | issn= 2349-6002|date=2014 |accessdate=2015-06-14 |url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150615085700/http://www.ijirt.org/paperpublished/IJIRT101166_PAPER.pdf |archivedate=2015-06-15 }}</ref> and the goal of this type of computing is to use the smallest stable structures, such as single molecules, as electronic components. This field, also known as chemical computing or reaction-diffusion computing, is distinct from the related fieldfields of conductive polymers and organic electronics, which usesuse molecules to affect the bulk properties of materials.

==Biochemistry approaches==

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===DNA computing===

{{main|DNA computing}}

DNA computing is a branch of unconventional computing that uses DNA and molecular biology hardware to perform calculations. It is a form of parallel computing that can solve certain specialized problems faster and more efficiently than traditional electronic computers. While DNA computing does not provide any new capabilities in terms of computability theory, it can perform a high number of parallel computations simultaneously. However, DNA computing has slower processing speeds, and it is more difficult to analyze the results compared to digital computers.

===Membrane computing===

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===Ternary computing===

{{main|Ternary computing}}

Ternary computing is a type of computing that uses [[ternary logic]], or base 3, in its calculations rather than the more common [[Principle of bivalence|binary system]]. Ternary computers use trits, or ternary digits, which can be defined in several ways, including unbalanced ternary, fractional unbalanced ternary, balanced ternary, and unknown-state logic. Ternary quantum computers use qutrits instead of trits. Ternary computing has largely been replaced by binary computers, but it has been proposed for use in high -speed, low -power consumption devices using the Josephson junction as a balanced ternary memory cell.

===Reversible computing===