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[[File:Mount Bromo (2012).JPG|thumb|[[Mount Bromo]] in [[East Java]]]]
Java lies between [[Sumatra]] to the west and [[Bali]] to the east. [[Borneo]] lies to the north, and [[Christmas Island]] is to the south. It is the world's 13th largest island. Java is surrounded by the [[Java Sea]] to the north, the [[Sunda Strait]] to the west, the [[Indian Ocean]] to the south and [[Bali Strait]] and [[Madura Strait]] in the east.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
Java is almost entirely of volcanic origin; it contains thirty-eight mountains forming an east–west spine that have at one time or another been active volcanoes. The highest volcano in Java is Mount [[Semeru]], {{Convert|3676|m|ft}}. The most active volcano in Java and also in Indonesia is [[Mount Merapi]], {{Convert|2930|m|ft}}. In total, Java has more than 150 mountains.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
Java's mountains and highlands split the interior into a series of relatively isolated regions suitable for [[Paddy field|wet-rice]] cultivation; the rice lands of Java are among the richest in the world.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p15">{{cite book |last=Ricklefs |first=M. C. |title=A History of Modern Indonesia since c.1300 |edition=2 |publisher=MacMillan |year=1990 |___location=London |page=15 |isbn=978-0-333-57690-8}}</ref> Java was the first place where [[Coffee production in Indonesia|Indonesian coffee]] was grown, starting in 1699. Today, [[coffea arabica]] is grown on the Ijen Plateau by small-holders and larger plantations.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De weg van Buitenzorg naar de Preanger Regentschappen TMnr 3728-429c.jpg|thumb|[[Parahyangan]] highland near [[Buitenzorg]], {{circa}} 1865–1872]]
The area of Java is about {{Convert|150000|km2|mi2}}.<ref name="RICKLEFS_p15"/> It is about {{convert |1000|km|abbr=on}} long and up to {{convert|210|km|abbr=on}} wide. The island's longest [[river]] is the 600 km long [[Solo River]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jasatirta1.go.id/english/3WorkArea/20BengawanSolo.htm |title=Management of Bengawan Solo River Area|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011113418/http://jasatirta1.go.id/english/3WorkArea/20BengawanSolo.htm |archive-date=2007-10-11 |publisher=Jasa Tirta I Corporation |date=2006}}</ref> The river rises from its source in central Java at the [[Mount Lawu|Lawu]] volcano, then flows north and eastward to its mouth in the Java Sea near the city of [[Surabaya]]. Other major rivers are [[Brantas River|Brantas]], [[Citarum River|Citarum]], [[Manuk River|Cimanuk]] and [[Serayu River|Serayu]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}
The average temperature ranges from {{Convert|22|C|F}} to {{Convert|29|C|F}}; average humidity is 75%. The northern coastal plains are normally hotter, averaging {{Convert|34|C|F}} during the day in the [[dry season]]. The south coast is generally cooler than the north, and highland areas inland are even cooler.<ref>{{cite web |title=Climate, Weather, and Temperature of Java Indonesia |url=http://www.javaindonesia.org/general/climate-weather-temperature-java-indonesia/|access-date=1 April 2014|archive-date=3 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903193044/http://www.javaindonesia.org/general/climate-weather-temperature-java-indonesia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[wet season]] begins in November and ends in April. During that rain falls mostly in the afternoons and intermittently during other parts of the year. The wettest months are January and February.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
West Java is wetter than [[East Java]], and mountainous regions receive much higher rainfall. The [[Parahyangan]] highlands of West Java receive over {{Convert|4000|mm|in}} annually, while the north coast of East Java receives {{Convert|900|mm|in}} annually.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
==Natural environment==
[[File:Cymbidium dayanum Orchi 04.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[Cymbidium dayanum]]'' - typical orchid in Java.]]
Java is an island with a large amount of biodiversity. The [[natural environment]] of Java is [[tropical rainforest]], with ecosystems ranging from coastal [[mangrove]] forest on the north coast, rocky coastal cliffs on the southern coast, and low-lying [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical forest]] to high altitude rainforest on the slopes of mountainous volcanic regions in the interior. The Javan environment and climate gradually alters from west to east; from wet and humid dense rainforest in western parts, to a dry [[savanna]] environment in the east, corresponding to the climate and rainfall in these regions.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Java-1934 -2.jpg|thumb|Male [[Javan rhinoceros|Javan rhino]] shot in 1934 in West Java. Today only small numbers of Javan rhino survive in [[Ujung Kulon National Park|Ujung Kulon]]; it is the world's rarest rhino.]]Javan wildlife originally supported a rich biodiversity, where numbers of [[Endemism|endemic]] species of flora and fauna flourished; such as the [[Javan rhinoceros]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=11 |title=Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) |publisher=EDGE Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered |access-date=26 June 2012 |archive-date=8 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108202706/http://www.edgeofexistence.org/mammals/species_info.php?id=11 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Banteng|Javan banteng]], [[Javan warty pig]], [[Javan hawk-eagle]], [[Green peafowl|Javan peafowl]], [[Silvery gibbon|Javan silvery gibbon]], [[East Javan langur|Javan lutung]], [[Java mouse-deer]], [[Javan rusa]], and [[Javan leopard]]. With over 450 bird species and 37 endemic species, Java is a birdwatcher's paradise.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wildlifenews.co.uk/2011/indonesia-bird-watching-tour-with-wildlife-news-travel/ |title=Indonesia bird watching tour |publisher=wildlifenews.co.uk |access-date=26 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209021238/http://wildlifenews.co.uk/2011/indonesia-bird-watching-tour-with-wildlife-news-travel/ |archive-date= 9 February 2012}}</ref> There are about 130 freshwater fish species in Java.<ref>Nguyen, T. T. T., and S. S. De Silva (2006). ''Freshwater finfish biodiversity and conservation: an asian perspective.'' Biodiversity & Conservation 15(11): 3543–3568.</ref> There are also several endemic [[List of amphibians of Java|amphibian species in Java]], including 5 species of [[Rhacophoridae|tree frogs]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}
Since ancient times, people have opened the rainforest, altered the ecosystem, shaped the landscapes and created [[Paddy field|rice paddy]] and terraces to support the growing population. Javan rice terraces have existed for more than a millennium and had supported ancient agricultural kingdoms. The growing human population has put severe pressure on Java's wildlife, as rainforests were diminished and confined to highland slopes or isolated peninsulas. Some of Java's endemic species are now critically endangered, with some already extinct; Java used to have [[Javan tiger]]s and [[Javan elephant]]s, but both have been rendered extinct. Today, several national parks exist in Java that protect the remnants of its fragile wildlife, such as [[Ujung Kulon National Park|Ujung Kulon]], [[Mount Halimun Salak National Park|Mount Halimun-Salak]], [[Gunung Gede Pangrango National Park|Gede Pangrango]], [[Baluran National Park|Baluran]], [[Meru Betiri National Park|Meru Betiri]], [[Bromo Tengger Semeru National Park|Bromo Tengger Semeru]] and [[Alas Purwo National Park|Alas Purwo]].
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[[File:Borobudur-Temple-Park Indonesia Stupas-of-Borobudur-04.jpg|thumb|The 9th century [[Borobudur]] Buddhist [[stupa]] in Central Java]]
The [[Tarumanagara|Taruma]] and [[Sunda Kingdom|Sunda]] kingdoms of western Java appeared in the 4th and 7th centuries respectively, while the [[Kalingga Kingdom]] sent embassies to China starting in 640.<ref name=Coedes>{{cite book |last=Coedès |first=George|author-link= George Coedès |editor=Walter F. Vella |others=trans.Susan Brown Cowing |title=The Indianized States of Southeast Asia |year=1968 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-0368-1}}</ref>{{rp|53,79}} However, the first major principality was the [[Mataram Kingdom]] that was founded in central Java at the beginning of the 8th century. Mataram's religion centered on the Hindu god [[Shiva]], and the kingdom produced some of Java's earliest Hindu temples on the [[Dieng Plateau]]. Around the 8th century, the [[Shailendra dynasty|Sailendra dynasty]] rose in [[Kedu Plain]] and become the patron of [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]]. This ancient kingdom built monuments such as the 9th century [[Borobudur]] and [[Prambanan]] in central Java.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
Around the 10th century, the center of power shifted from central to eastern Java. The eastern Javanese kingdoms of [[Kediri Kingdom|Kediri]], [[Singhasari]] and [[Majapahit]] were mainly dependent on rice agriculture, yet also pursued trade within the Indonesian archipelago, and with China and India. Majapahit was established by [[Raden Wijaya|Wijaya]],<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|201}} and by the end of the reign of [[Hayam Wuruk]] (r. 1350–89) it claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago, although control was likely limited to Java, Bali, and Madura. Hayam Wuruk's prime minister, [[Gajah Mada]], led many of the kingdom's territorial conquests.<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|234}} Previous Javanese kingdoms had their power based on agriculture, however, Majapahit took control of ports and shipping lanes and became Java's first commercial empire. With the death of Hayam Wuruk and the [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|coming of Islam to Indonesia]], Majapahit went into decline.<ref name="Coedes" />{{rp|241}}
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Java is divided into four [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]] and two special regions:{{cn|date=December 2023}}
* [[Banten]], capital: [[Serang]]
* [[Jakarta|Special Capital Region of Jakarta]]
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Java has been traditionally dominated by an elite class, while the people in the lower classes were often involved in agriculture and fishing. The elite class in Java has evolved over the course of history, as cultural wave after cultural wave immigrated to the island. There is evidence that South Asian emigres were among this elite, as well as Arabian and Persian immigrants during the Islamic eras. More recently, Chinese immigrants have also become part of the economic elite of Java. Although politically the Chinese generally remain sidelined, there are notable exceptions, such as the former governor of Jakarta, [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]]. Though Java is increasingly becoming more modern and urban, only 75% of the island has electricity. Villages and their rice paddies are still a common sight. Unlike the rest of Java, the population growth in Central Java remains low. Central Java however has a younger population than the national average.<ref>[http://www.bkkbn.go.id/kependudukan/Pages/DataSensus/Sensus_Penduduk/Pola_Perkawinan/Rata_Usia_Kawin_Pertama/Nasional.aspx Usia Kawin Pertama Rata-Rata Wanita Menurut Provinsi: Sensus Penduduk Tahun 1990, 2000 dan 2010] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150629055719/http://www.bkkbn.go.id/kependudukan/Pages/DataSensus/Sensus_Penduduk/Pola_Perkawinan/Rata_Usia_Kawin_Pertama/Nasional.aspx |date=2015-06-29 }}. Retrieved 16 August 2015.</ref> The slow population growth can in part be attributed to the choice by many people to leave the more rural Central Java for better opportunities and higher incomes in the bigger cities.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/30/central-java-strives-alleviate-poverty.html |author=Agus Maryono |title=Central Java strives to alleviate poverty |work=The Jakarta Post |date=30 March 2009 |access-date=16 August 2015 |archive-date= 8 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908234750/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2009/03/30/central-java-strives-alleviate-poverty.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Java's population continues to rapidly increase despite many Javanese leaving the island. This is somewhat due to the fact that Java is the business, academic, and cultural hub of Indonesia, which attracts millions of non-Javanese people to its cities. The population growth is most intense in the regions surrounding [[Jakarta]] and [[Bandung]], which is reflected through the demographic diversity in those areas.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
===Population development===
With a combined population of 151.6 million in the 2020 census (including Madura's 4.0 million),<ref name=JKTPOS>{{cite news |title=Population growth 'good for Papua' |date=23 August 2010 |access-date=30 August 2010 |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/08/23/population-growth-%E2%80%98good-papua%E2%80%99.html |work=[[The Jakarta Post]] |archive-date=24 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100824053746/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2010/08/23/population-growth-%E2%80%98good-papua%E2%80%99.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> Java is the [[List of islands by population|most populous major island in the world]] and is home to 56% of Indonesia's population.<ref name="JKTPOS"/> At nearly 1,200 people per km<sup>2</sup> in 2020, it is also one of the most densely populated parts of the world, on a par with [[Bangladesh]]. Every region of the island has numerous volcanoes, with the people left to share the remaining flatter land. Because of this, many coasts are heavily populated and cities ring around the valleys surrounding volcanic peaks.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
The population growth rate more than doubled in economically depressed Central Java in the latest 2010–2020 period vs 2000–2010, indicative of migration or other issues; there were significant [[Mount Merapi#2006 eruption|volcanic eruption]]s during the earlier period. Approximately 45% of the population of Indonesia is ethnically Javanese,<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia/ Indonesia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413004319/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/indonesia |date=2021-04-13 }}. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref> while Sundanese make a large portion of Java's population as well.
The western third of the island (West Java, Banten, and DKI Jakarta) has an even higher population density, of roughly 1,563 per square kilometer and accounts for the lion's share of the population growth of Java.<ref name="JKTPOS"/> It is home to three metropolitan areas, [[Greater Jakarta]] (with outlying areas of Greater [[Serang]] and Greater [[Sukabumi]]), [[Bandung Metropolitan Area|Greater Bandung]], and Greater [[Cirebon]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}
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[[File:Ramayana Java.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lakshmana]], [[Rama]] and [[Sita|Shinta]] in [[Ramayana]] ballet at [[Prambanan]], Java]]
Despite its large population and in contrast to the other larger islands of Indonesia, Java is comparatively homogeneous in ethnic composition. Only two ethnic groups are native to the island—the [[Javanese people|Javanese]] and [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]]. A third group is the [[Madurese people|Madurese]], who inhabit the island of [[Madura Island|Madura]] off the northeast coast of Java, and have immigrated to [[East Java]] in large numbers since the 18th century.<ref name=Periplus58>{{cite book |last=Hefner |first=Robert |title=Java |publisher=Periplus Editions |year=1997 |___location=Singapore |page=58 |isbn=978-962-593-244-6}}</ref> The Javanese comprise about two-thirds of the island's population, while the Sundanese and Madurese account for 38% and 10% respectively.<ref name=Periplus58/> The fourth group is the [[Betawi people]] that speak a dialect of [[Malay language|Malay]], they are the descendants of the people living around [[Jakarta|Batavia]] from around the 17th century. Betawis are [[creole people]], mostly descended from various Indonesian archipelago ethnic groups such as [[Ethnic Malay|Malay]], [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]], [[Javanese people|Javanese]], [[Balinese people|Balinese]], [[Minangkabau people|Minang]], [[Bugis people|Bugis]], [[Makassar people|Makassar]], [[Ambonese]], mixed with foreign ethnic groups such as [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Dutch people|Dutch]], [[Arab]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]] and [[Indian people|Indian]] brought to or attracted to Batavia to meet labour needs. They have a culture and language distinct from the surrounding [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]] and [[Javanese people|Javanese]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}
The Javanese prose text [[Tantu Pagelaran]] ({{circa|15th century}}) explained the mythical origin of the island and its volcanic nature.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
Four major cultural areas exist on the island: the central part of Java or [[Yogyakarta]] is the Javanese people heartland and the north coast of the ''pasisir'' region, the [[Sundanese people|Sunda]] lands ([[Sundanese language|Sundanese]]: {{Sund|ᮒᮒᮁ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ}}, ''Tatar'' ''Sunda'') in the western part of Java and [[Parahyangan]] as the heartland, the [[eastern salient of Java]] also known as [[Banyuwangi|Blambangan]]. Madura makes up a fifth area having close cultural ties with coastal eastern Java.<ref name="Periplus58" /> The ''kejawen of Javanese'' culture is the island's most dominant. Java's remaining aristocracy is based here, and it is the region from where the majority of Indonesia's army, business, and political elite originate. Its language, arts, and etiquette are regarded as the island's most refined and exemplary.<ref name="Periplus58" /> The territory from [[Banyumas Regency|Banyumas]] in the west through to [[Blitar]] in the east and encompasses Indonesia's most fertile and densely populated agricultural land.''<ref name="Periplus58" />''
In the southwestern part of Central Java, which is usually named the [[Banyumas Regency|Banyumasan]] region, a cultural mingling occurred; bringing together Javanese culture and Sundanese culture to create the [[Banyumasan language|Banyumasan]] culture.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Java and Cambodia {{!}} Boundless Art History|url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-arthistory/chapter/java-and-cambodia/|access-date=2020-10-21|website=courses.lumenlearning.com}}</ref> In the central Javanese court cities of [[Yogyakarta (city)|Yogyakarta]] and [[Surakarta]], contemporary kings trace their lineages back to the pre-colonial Islamic kingdoms that ruled the region, making those places especially strong repositories of classical Javanese culture. Classic arts of Java include [[gamelan]] music and [[wayang]] puppet shows.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
Java was the site of many influential kingdoms in the Southeast Asian region,<ref>See Wallace Stevens's poem "[[Tea (poem)|Tea]]" for an appreciative allusion to Javanese culture.</ref> and as a result, many literary works have been written by Javanese authors. These include ''[[Ken Arok]] and [[Ken Dedes]]'', the story of the orphan who usurped his king, and married the queen of the ancient Javanese kingdom; and translations of ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''. [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]] is a famous contemporary Indonesian author, who has written many stories based on his own experiences of having grown up in Java, and takes many elements from Javanese folklore and historical legends.
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[[File:Java languages.JPG|thumb|left|Languages spoken in Java (Javanese is shown in white). "Malay" refers to [[Betawi language|Betawi]], the local dialect as one of Malay creole dialect.]]
The three major languages spoken on Java are [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]] and [[Madurese language|Madurese]]. Other languages spoken include [[Betawi language|Betawi]] (a [[Malay language|Malay]] dialect local to the Jakarta region), [[Osing language|Osing]], [[Banyumasan language|Banyumasan]], and [[Tenggerese people|Tenggerese]] (closely related to Javanese), [[Baduy language|Baduy]] and [[Bantenese language|Bantenese]] (closely related to Sundanese), [[Kangean language|Kangean]]ese (closely related to Madurese), and [[Balinese language|Balinese]].<ref>[http://www.cityandsuburbancleaners.com.au/Languages-of-Indonesia.pdf Languages of Java and Bali] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216214336/http://www.cityandsuburbancleaners.com.au/Languages-of-Indonesia.pdf |date=2017-02-16 }}. Other sources may list some of these as dialects rather than languages.</ref> The vast majority of the population also speaks [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], often as a second language.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
===Religion===
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[[South Asia|Indian]] influences came first with [[Shaivism]] and [[Buddhism]] penetrating deeply into society, blending with indigenous tradition and culture.<ref name="kroef1961">{{cite journal |first=Justus M. |last=van der Kroef |title=New Religious Sects in Java |journal=Far Eastern Survey |volume=30 |issue=2 |year=1961 |pages=18–25 |doi=10.2307/3024260 |jstor=3024260}}</ref> One [[Conduit (spiritualism)|conduit]] for this were the [[asceticism|ascetic]]s, called ''resi'', who taught mystical practices. A ''resi'' lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, [[Brahmin]] clerics and ''pudjangga'' (sacred literati) legitimised rulers and linked [[Hinduism|Hindu]] cosmology to their political needs.<ref name="kroef1961"/> Small [[Hindu]] enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large [[Hindu]] population along the eastern coast nearest [[Bali]], especially around the town of [[Banyuwangi]].{{cn|date=December 2023}}
The coming of [[Islam]], strengthened the status structure of this traditional religious pattern. More than 90 percent of the people of Java are Muslims, on a broad continuum between ''[[abangan]]'' (more traditional) and ''[[santri]]'' (more modernist). Muslim scholars (''[[Kyai]]'') became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal [[Clergy|priesthood]], but the [[Dutch East India Company|Dutch colonial government]] established an elaborate rank order for mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanese ''[[pesantren]]'' (Islamic schools), The ''Kyai'' perpetuated the tradition of the ''resi''. Students around him provided his needs, even [[peasant]]s around the school.<ref name="kroef1961"/>
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==Economy==
[[File:KerbauJawa.jpg|left|thumb|[[Water buffalo]] ploughing [[Paddy field|rice fields]] near [[Salatiga]], in [[Central Java]]]]
Initially the economy of Java relied heavily on [[rice]] agriculture. Ancient kingdoms such as the [[Tarumanagara]], [[Mataram Kingdom|Mataram]], and [[Majapahit]] were dependent on rice yields and tax. Java was famous for rice surpluses and rice export since ancient times, and rice agriculture contributed to the population growth of the island. Trade with other parts of Asia such as ancient India and China flourished as early as the 4th century, as evidenced by Chinese ceramics found on the island dated to that period. Java also took part in the global trade of [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] [[spice]] from ancient times in the Majapahit era, until well into the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) era.{{cn|date=December 2023}}
[[File:Java Transportation Network.svg|thumb|Java transport network]]
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