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==Knowledge gained from ancient animal and plant parasites==
Studies of parasite remains and traces from the past have yielded a vast catalog of ancient host-parasite associations.<ref name="ConwayMorris" /><ref>Baumiller, T.K. and F.J. Gahn (2002) [http://www.yale.edu/ypmip/predation/Chapter_07.pdf Fossil record of parasitism on marine invertebrates with special emphasis on the platyceratid-crinoid interaction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126233552/http://yale.edu/ypmip/predation/Chapter_07.pdf |date=2009-01-26 }}. ''Paleontological Society Papers'' 8:195-209.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = De Baets | first1 = K. | last2 = Littlewood | first2 = D. T. J. | year = 2015 | title = The Importance of Fossils in Understanding the Evolution of Parasites and Their Vectors | url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280091402 | format = PDF | journal = Advances in Parasitology | volume = 90 | pages = 1–51 | doi = 10.1016/bs.apar.2015.07.001 | pmid = 26597064 | isbn = 9780128040010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Leung | first1 = T. L. F. | year = 2016 | title = Fossils of parasites: what can the fossil record tell us about the evolution of parasitism? | journal = Biological Reviews | volume = 92| issue = 1| pages = 410–430| doi = 10.1111/brv.12238 | pmid = 26538112 | s2cid = 26088735 }}</ref> Genetic sequence data obtained directly from ancient animal parasites,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dittmar | first1 = K. | last2 = Mamat | first2 = U. | last3 = Whiting | first3 = M. | last4 = Goldmann | first4 = T. | last5 = Reinhard | first5 = K. | last6 = Guillen | first6 = S. | year = 2003 | title = Techniques of DNA-studies on prehispanic ectoparasites (''Pulex'' sp., Pulicidae, Siphonaptera) from animal mummies of the Chiribaya culture, southern Peru | journal = Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz | volume = 98 | issue = Suppl 1| pages = 53–58 | doi=10.1590/s0074-02762003000900010| pmid = 12687763 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and inferences of past relationships based on genetic sequences of existing parasite groups are also being applied to paleoparasitological questions.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kerr | first1 = S.F. | year = 2006 | title = Molecular trees of trypanosomes incongruent with fossil records of hosts | journal = Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz | volume = 101 | issue = 1| pages = 25–30 | doi=10.1590/s0074-02762006000100006| pmid = 16612509 | doi-access = free | hdl = 1807/8361 | hdl-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stevens | first1 = J.R. | last2 = Wallman | first2 = J.F. | year = 2006 | title = The evolution of myiasis in humans and other animals in the Old and New Worlds. Part I. Phylogenetic analyses | journal = Trends in Parasitology | volume = 22 | issue = 3| pages = 129–136 | doi=10.1016/j.pt.2006.01.008| pmid = 16459148 }}</ref> Data obtained by all of these methods are constantly improving our understanding of the origin and evolution of the parasites themselves<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mu | first1 = J. | last2 = Duan | first2 = J. | last3 = Makova | first3 = K.D. | last4 = Joy | first4 = D.A. | last5 = Huynh | first5 = C.Q. | last6 = Branch | first6 = O.H. | last7 = Li | first7 = W.-H. | last8 = Su | first8 = X.-Z. | year = 2002 | title = ''Chromosome-wide SNPs reveal an ancient origin for ''Plasmodium falciparum | journal = Nature | volume = 418 | issue = 6895| pages = 323–326 | doi=10.1038/nature00836| pmid = 12124624 | bibcode = 2002Natur.418..323M | s2cid = 4409397 }}</ref> and their vectors,<ref>Black, W.C, IV (2003) Evolution of arthropod disease vectors. In: C.L. Greenblatt and M. Spigelman (eds) ''Emerging Pathogens: The Archaeology, Ecology, and Evolution of Infectious Disease''. Oxford University Press, pp. 49-63.</ref> and of the host-parasite and vector-parasite associations.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Opler | first1 = P.A. | year = 1973 | title = Fossil lepidopterous leaf mines demonstrate the age of some insect-plant relationships | journal = Science | volume = 179 | issue = 4080| pages = 1321–1323 | doi=10.1126/science.179.4080.1321| pmid = 17835937 | bibcode = 1973Sci...179.1321O | s2cid = 26877469 }}</ref><ref>Labandeira, C.C. (2006) [https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/505/50540401.pdf Four phases of plant-arthropod associations in deep time] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406175017/http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/pdf/505/50540401.pdf |date=2012-04-06 }}. ''Geologica Acta'' 4(4):409-438.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Nel | first1 = A. | last2 = Azar | first2 = D. | year = 2005 | title = The oldest parasitic Scelionidae: Teleasinae (Hymenoptera: Platygastroidea) | url = http://osuc.biosci.ohio-state.edu/hymDB/nomenclator.hlviewer?id=21133 | journal = Polskie Pismo Entomologiczne | volume = 74 | issue = 3 | pages = 333–338 | access-date = 2008-11-07 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100708080005/http://osuc.biosci.ohio-state.edu/hymDB/nomenclator.hlviewer?id=21133 | archive-date = 2010-07-08 | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sha | first1 = Z-L. | last2 = Zhu | first2 = C.-D. | last3 = Murphy | first3 = R.W. | last4 = Salle | first4 = J. La | last5 = Huang | first5 = D.-W. | year = 2006 | title = Mitochondrial phylogeography of a leafminer parasitoid, ''Diglyphus isaea'' (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) in China | doi = 10.1016/j.biocontrol.2008.05.009 | journal = Biological Control | volume = 38 | issue = 3| pages = 380–389 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Poinar | first1 = G.O Jr. | year = 2007 | title = The origins, acquisition and transmission of Leishmania in the distant past | journal = Science and Culture | volume = 73 | pages = 116–119 }}</ref>
In some cases, presumed host-parasite relationships of the past seem quite different from those known in the present, such as a fly which appears to be a parasite of a [[mite]]<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kerr | first1 = P.H. | last2 = Winterton | first2 = S.L. | year = 2008 | title = Do parasitic flies attack mites? Evidence in Baltic amber | journal = Biological Journal of the Linnean Society | volume = 93 | issue = 1| pages = 9–13 | doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2007.00935.x| doi-access = free }}</ref>
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