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== History ==
Inquiry-based learning is primarily a [[pedagogy|pedagogical]] method, developed during the [[discovery learning]] movement of the 1960s as a response to traditional forms of instruction—where people were required to memorize information from instructional materials,<ref>Bruner, J. S. (1961). "The act of discovery". Harvard Educational Review 31 (1): 21–32.</ref> such as [[direct instruction]] and [[rote learning]].
In the 1960s Joseph Schwab called for inquiry to be divided into three distinct levels.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schwab, J. |date=Summer 1960 |jstor=1083585 |title=Inquiry, the Science Teacher, and the Educator |journal=The School Review |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=176–195 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press|doi=10.1086/442536 |s2cid=144897014 }}</ref> This was later formalized by Marshall Herron in 1971, who developed the Herron Scale to evaluate the amount of inquiry within a particular lab exercise.<ref>Herron, M.D. (1971). The nature of scientific enquiry. The school review, 79(2), 171–212.</ref> Since then, there have been a number of revisions proposed and inquiry can take various forms. There is a spectrum of inquiry-based teaching methods available.<ref>Wilhelm, J. G., & Wilhelm, P. J. (2010). Inquiring minds learn to read, write, and think: Reaching all learners through inquiry. Middle School Journal, May 2010, 39–46.</ref>
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== Characteristics ==
[[File:Cover to cover reading versus problem or project based learning.png|thumb|370px|Example of problem/project based learning versus reading cover to cover. The problem/project based learner may memorize a smaller amount of total information due to spending time searching for the optimal information across various sources, but will likely learn more useful items for real world scenarios, and will likely be better at knowing where to find information when needed.<ref>Image by Mikael Häggström, MD, using source images by various authors. Source for useful context in problem-based learning: {{cite journal|title=Understanding Medical Education
Specific learning processes that people engage in during inquiry-learning include:<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bell | first1 = T. | last2 = Urhahne | first2 = D. | last3 = Schanze | first3 = S. | last4 = Ploetzner | first4 = R. | year = 2010 | title = Collaborative inquiry learning: Models, tools, and challenges | url = http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/21303| journal = International Journal of Science Education | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 349–377 | bibcode = 2010IJSEd..32..349B | doi = 10.1080/09500690802582241 | s2cid = 3866279 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.inquired.org/what-is-inquiry|title=What is inquiry?}}</ref>
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=== Levels ===
There are many different explanations for inquiry teaching and learning and the various levels of inquiry that can exist within those contexts. The article titled ''The Many Levels of Inquiry'' by Heather Banchi and Randy Bell (2008)<ref>Bell, R., Banchi, H. (2008). The Many Levels of Inquiry. Science & Children, 46(2),
'''Level 1''': Confirmation Inquiry<br />
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=== Open/true inquiry learning ===
An important aspect of inquiry-based learning is the use of open learning, as evidence suggests that only utilizing lower level inquiry is not enough to develop critical and scientific thinking to the full potential.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Berg | first1 = C A R | last2 = Bergendahl | first2 = V C B | last3 = Lundberg | first3 = B K S | last4 = Tibell | first4 = L A E | year = 2003 | title = Benefiting from an open-ended experiment? A comparison of attitudes to, and outcomes of, an expository versus an open-inquiry version to the same experiment | journal = International Journal of Science Education | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 351–372 | doi=10.1080/09500690210145738| bibcode = 2003IJSEd..25..351B | s2cid = 143335162 }}</ref><ref>Yen C F and Hunang S C (2001) Authentic learning about tree frogs by preservice biology teachers in an open-inquiry research settings. Proc. Natl. Sci. Counc. ROC(D) 11, 1–10.</ref><ref name="Zion, M. 2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Zion | first1 = M. | last2 = Sadeh | first2 = I. | year = 2007 | title = Curiosity and open inquiry learning | journal = Journal of Biological Education | volume = 41 | issue = 4| pages = 162–168 | doi=10.1080/00219266.2007.9656092| s2cid = 56105131 }}</ref> Open learning has no prescribed target or result that people have to achieve.
Open learning has many benefits.<ref name="Zion, M. 2007"/> It means students do not simply perform experiments in a routine like fashion, but actually think about the results they collect and what they mean. With traditional non-open lessons there is a tendency for students to say that the experiment 'went wrong' when they collect results contrary to what they are told to expect. In open learning there are no wrong results, and students have to evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the results they collect themselves and decide their value.
Open learning has been developed by a number of science educators including the American [[John Dewey]] and the German [[Martin Wagenschein]].{{efn| name= MartinWagenschein| Wagenschein characterized his approach as Socratic, genetic, and example-based.<ref>[[:de:Martin Wagenschein]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=April 2022}}}}
Although both guided and open/true inquiry were found to promote science literacy and interest, each has its own advantages. While open/true inquiry may contribute to students' initiative, flexibility and adaptability better than guided inquiry in the long run,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dorfman |first1=Bat-Shahar |last2=Issachar |first2=Hagit |last3=Zion |first3=Michal |date=2020-02-01 |title=Yesterday's Students in Today's World—Open and Guided Inquiry Through the Eyes of Graduated High School Biology Students |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-017-9683-6 |journal=Research in Science Education |language=en |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=123–149 |doi=10.1007/s11165-017-9683-6 |s2cid=254987400 |issn=1573-1898}}</ref> some claim that it may lead to high cognitive load and that guided inquiry is more efficient in terms of time and content learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bunterm |first1=Tassanee |last2=Lee |first2=Kerry |last3=Ng Lan Kong |first3=Jeremy |last4=Srikoon |first4=Sanit |last5=Vangpoomyai |first5=Penporn |last6=Rattanavongsa |first6=Jareunkwan |last7=Rachahoon |first7=Ganya |date=2014-08-13 |title=Do Different Levels of Inquiry Lead to Different Learning Outcomes? A comparison between guided and structured inquiry |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09500693.2014.886347 |journal=International Journal of Science Education |language=en |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=1937–1959 |doi=10.1080/09500693.2014.886347 |bibcode=2014IJSEd..36.1937B |s2cid=144105574 |issn=0950-0693}}</ref>
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==== Pedagogical applications ====
Inquiry-based pedagogy in science education has been shown to increase students' scientific knowledge and literacy when compared to when students are taught using more traditional pedagogical methods.<ref name=":02">{{Cite thesis |title=Lego TC logo as a learning environment in problem-solving in advanced supplementary level design & technology with pupils aged
In cases where students' scientific knowledge in an inquiry based classroom was not significantly different than their peers taught in traditional methods, student problem solving ability was found to be improved for inquiry learning students.<ref name=":02" />
===== Problem-based learning =====
Inquiry as a pedagogical framework has been shown to be especially effective when used along [[problem-based learning]] (PBL) assignments.<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last1=Saleh |first1=Asmalina |last2=Phillips |first2=Tanner M. |last3=Hmelo‐Silver |first3=Cindy E. |last4=Glazewski |first4=Krista D. |last5=Mott |first5=Bradford W. |last6=Lester |first6=James C. |date=September 2022 |title=A learning analytics approach towards understanding collaborative inquiry in a problem‐based learning environment |url=https://bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjet.13198 |journal=British Journal of Educational Technology |language=en |volume=53 |issue=5 |pages=1321–1342 |doi=10.1111/bjet.13198 |s2cid=247150247 |issn=0007-1013|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":52">Quitadamo, Ian J, and Ryan Campanella.
===== 5E Model of Science Education =====
The 5E Model of Science Education is a planning structure that helps science teachers develop student centered inquiry-based lessons and units.
The 5E Model is broken into the following sections which may repeat and occur at various stages of the learning process.
*
*
*
*
*
==== Collaboration and communication ====
Effective collaboration and communication is an integral part of scientists' and engineers' everyday lives and their importance is reflected in the representation of these skills in the science and engineering practices of the Next Generation Science Standards.
* make observations and ask questions with their peers
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=== Social studies and history ===
The College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework for Social Studies State Standards was a joint collaboration among states and social studies organizations, including the National Council for the Social Studies,<ref name=":0" /> designed to focus social studies education on the practice of inquiry, emphasizing "the disciplinary concepts and practices that support students as they develop the capacity to know, analyze, explain, and argue about interdisciplinary challenges in our social world."<ref name=":0" />
Robert Bain in ''[[How Students Learn]]'' described a similar approach called "problematizing history".<ref>Bain, R.B., Donovan, M.S. & Bransford, J.D. (Eds). (2005). "They thought the world was flat?": Applying the principles of How People Learn in teaching high school history. How Students Learn. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309074339</ref> First a learning curriculum is organized around central concepts. Next, a question and primary sources are provided, such as eyewitness historical accounts. The task for inquiry is to create an interpretation of history that will answer the central question.
=== Ontario's kindergarten program ===
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In contrast, Hmelo-Silver et al. also cite a large study by Geier on the effectiveness of inquiry-based science for middle school students, as demonstrated by their performance on high-stakes standardized tests. The improvement was 14% for the first cohort of students and 13% for the second cohort. This study also found that inquiry-based teaching methods greatly reduced the achievement gap for African-American students.<ref name="hmelo" />
In a 2006 article, the Thomas B. Fordham Institute's president, Chester E. Finn Jr., was quoted as saying "But like so many things in education, it gets carried to excess... [the approach is] fine to some degree."
Richard E. Mayer from the University of California, Santa Barbara, wrote in 2004 that there was sufficient research evidence to make any reasonable person skeptical about the benefits of discovery learning—practiced under the guise of cognitive constructivism or social constructivism—as a preferred instructional method. He reviewed research on discovery of problem-solving rules culminating in the 1960s, discovery of conservation strategies culminating in the 1970s, and discovery of LOGO programming strategies culminating in the 1980s. In each case, guided discovery was more effective than pure discovery in helping students learn and transfer.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mayer | first1 = R | year = 2004 | title = Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning? The case for guided methods of instruction | url = http://www.davidlewisphd.com/courses/EDD8001/weeklys/2004-Mayer.pdf | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 14–19 | doi=10.1037/0003-066x.59.1.14 | pmid=14736316| citeseerx = 10.1.1.372.2476 | s2cid = 1129364 }}</ref>
It should be cautioned that inquiry-based learning takes a lot of planning before implementation.
While some see inquiry-based teaching as increasingly mainstream, it can be perceived as in conflict with [[standardized testing]] common in [[standards-based assessment]] systems which emphasise the measurement of student knowledge, and meeting of pre-defined criteria, for example the shift towards "fact" in changes to the National Assessment of Educational Progress as a result of the American [[No Child Left Behind]] program.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
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Chu (2009) used a mixed method design to examine the outcome of an inquiry project completed by students in Hong Kong with the assistance of multiple educators. Chu's (2009) results show that the children were more motivated and academically successful compared to the control group.<ref name="autogenerated1671"/>
Cindy Hmelo-Silver reviewed a number of reports on a variety studies into problem based learning.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hmelo-Silver, C. |url=http://thorndike.tc.columbia.edu/~david/MTSU4083/Readings/Problem-%20and%20Case-based%20ID/hmelo.pdf |title=Problem Based Learning: What and how do students learn |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016180532/http://thorndike.tc.columbia.edu/~david/MTSU4083/Readings/Problem-%20and%20Case-based%20ID/hmelo.pdf |archive-date=16 October 2012
Edelson, Gordin and Pea describe five significant challenges to implementing inquiry-based learning and present strategies for addressing them through the design of technology and curriculum. They present a design history covering four generations of software and curriculum to show how these challenges arise in classrooms and how the design strategies respond to them.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Edelson, D. |author2=Gordin, D. |author3=Pea, R. |year=1999 |url=http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/19/06/09/PDF/A101_Edelson_etal_99.pdf |title=Addressing the Challenges of Inquiry-Based Learning Through Technology and Curriculum Design |journal=Journal of the Learning Sciences |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=391–450|doi=10.1207/s15327809jls0803&4_3 }}</ref>
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== External links ==
{{Wikiversity|Inquiry-based learning}}
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~ensiweb/lessons/BornToRun.html Inquiry-based middle school lesson plan:
* [https://sites.google.com/site/inquiryschoolscience/ Teaching Inquiry-based Science]
*[https://www.inquired.org/what-is-inquiry What is Inquiry?]
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