Content deleted Content added
Alter: title, template type. Add: series, chapter. Removed parameters. Removed 2 name-list-style attributes from cite entries that match that of "cs1 config" to exclude the article from Category:CS1 maint: overridden setting. Used lowercase "cite" template everywhere for consistency, as the majority of instances used lowercase already. Tag: Reverted |
Restored revision 1194920441 by Graham Beards (talk): It's a journal - please stop |
||
Line 89:
== Effects on the host cell ==
Viruses have an extensive range of structural and biochemical effects on the host cell.{{sfn | Oxford |Kellam|Collier| 2016 | p=34–36}}These are called ''[[cytopathic effect]]s''.{{sfn | Oxford |Kellam|Collier| 2016 | p=34}} Most virus infections eventually result in the death of the host cell. The causes of death include cell lysis (bursting), alterations to the cell's surface membrane and [[apoptosis]] (cell "suicide").<ref name="pmid28846635">{{cite journal |vauthors=Okamoto T, Suzuki T, Kusakabe S, Tokunaga M, Hirano J, Miyata Y, Matsuura Y |title=Regulation of Apoptosis during Flavivirus Infection |journal=Viruses |volume=9 |issue=9 |pages= 243|year= 2017 |pmid=28846635 |pmc=5618009 |doi=10.3390/v9090243|doi-access=free }}</ref> Often cell death is caused by cessation of its normal activity due to proteins produced by the virus, not all of which are components of the virus particle.<ref name="pmid18637511">{{cite
Some viruses cause no apparent changes to the infected cell. Cells in which the virus is [[virus latency|latent]] (inactive) show few signs of infection and often function normally.<ref name="pmid18164651">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sinclair J | title = Human cytomegalovirus: Latency and reactivation in the myeloid lineage | journal = J. Clin. Virol. | volume = 41 | issue = 3 | pages = 180–185 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18164651 | doi = 10.1016/j.jcv.2007.11.014 }}</ref> This causes persistent infections and the virus is often dormant for many months or years. This is often the case with [[herpes simplex|herpes viruses]].<ref name="pmid6326635">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jordan MC, Jordan GW, Stevens JG, Miller G | title = Latent herpesviruses of humans | journal = Ann. Intern. Med. | volume = 100 | issue = 6 | pages = 866–880 | date = June 1984 | pmid = 6326635 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-100-6-866 }}</ref><ref name="pmid12076064">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sissons JG, Bain M, Wills MR | s2cid = 24879226 | title = Latency and reactivation of human cytomegalovirus | journal = J. Infect. | volume = 44 | issue = 2 | pages = 73–77 | date = February 2002 | pmid = 12076064 | doi = 10.1053/jinf.2001.0948}}</ref>
Line 113:
Although viral [[pandemic]]s are rare events, HIV—which evolved from viruses found in monkeys and chimpanzees—has been pandemic since at least the 1980s.<ref name="pmid29460740">{{cite journal |vauthors=Eisinger RW, Fauci AS |title=Ending the HIV/AIDS Pandemic1 |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=413–416 |date=March 2018 |pmid=29460740 |pmc=5823353 |doi=10.3201/eid2403.171797 }}</ref> During the 20th century there were four pandemics caused by influenza virus and those that occurred in 1918, 1957 and 1968 were severe.<ref name="pmid30180422">{{cite journal |vauthors=Qin Y, Zhao MJ, Tan YY, Li XQ, Zheng JD, Peng ZB, Feng LZ |title=[History of influenza pandemics in China during the past century] |language=zh |journal=Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi = Zhonghua Liuxingbingxue Zazhi |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=1028–1031 |date=August 2018 |pmid=30180422 |doi=10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2018.08.003 }}</ref> Before its eradication, smallpox was a cause of pandemics for more than 3,000 years.<ref name="pmid26060873">{{cite journal |vauthors=Nishiyama Y, Matsukuma S, Matsumura T, Kanatani Y, Saito T |title=Preparedness for a smallpox pandemic in Japan: public health perspectives |journal=Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=220–223 |date=April 2015 |pmid=26060873 |doi=10.1017/dmp.2014.157 |s2cid=37149836 }}</ref> Throughout history, human migration has aided the spread of pandemic infections; first by sea and in modern times also by air.<ref name="pmid30878442">{{cite journal |vauthors=Houghton F |title=Geography, global pandemics & air travel: Faster, fuller, further & more frequent |journal=Journal of Infection and Public Health |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=448–449 |date=2019 |pmid=30878442 |doi=10.1016/j.jiph.2019.02.020 |pmc=7129534 }}</ref>
With the exception of smallpox, most pandemics are caused by newly evolved viruses. These [[Emergent virus|"emergent"]] viruses are usually mutants of less harmful viruses that have circulated previously either in humans or in other animals.<ref>{{
[[Severe acute respiratory syndrome]] (SARS) and [[Middle East respiratory syndrome]] (MERS) are caused by new types of [[coronavirus]]es. Other coronaviruses are known to cause mild infections in humans,<ref name="pmid22094080">{{cite book |vauthors=Weiss SR, Leibowitz JL |title=Coronavirus pathogenesis |volume=81|pages=85–164 |year=2011 |pmid=22094080 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-385885-6.00009-2 |series=Advances in Virus Research |pmc=7149603 |isbn=978-0-12-385885-6}}</ref> so the virulence and rapid spread of SARS infections—that by July 2003 had caused around 8,000 cases and 800 deaths—was unexpected and most countries were not prepared.<ref name="pmid28475794">{{cite journal |vauthors=Wong AT, Chen H, Liu SH, Hsu EK, Luk KS, Lai CK, Chan RF, Tsang OT, Choi KW, Kwan YW, Tong AY, Cheng VC, Tsang DC |title=From SARS to Avian Influenza Preparedness in Hong Kong |journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases |volume=64 |issue=suppl_2 |pages=S98–S104 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28475794 |doi=10.1093/cid/cix123 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
A related coronavirus emerged in [[Wuhan]], China, in November 2019 and spread rapidly around the world. Thought to have originated in bats and subsequently named [[severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2]], infections with the virus cause a disease called [[COVID-19]], that varies in severity from mild to deadly,<ref name="WHOReport24Feb2020">{{cite report | title = Report of the WHO-China Joint Mission on Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) | date = 16–24 February 2020 | url = https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/who-china-joint-mission-on-covid-19-final-report.pdf | publisher = [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) | access-date = 21 March 2020}}</ref> and led to a [[COVID-19 pandemic|pandemic in 2020]].<ref name="pmid32143502">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ashour HM, Elkhatib WF, Rahman MM, Elshabrawy HA |title=Insights into the Recent 2019 Novel Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in Light of Past Human Coronavirus Outbreaks |journal=Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages= 186|date=March 2020 |pmid=32143502 |doi=10.3390/pathogens9030186 |pmc=7157630 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid32093211">{{cite journal |vauthors=Deng SQ, Peng HJ |title=Characteristics of and Public Health Responses to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Outbreak in China |journal=Journal of Clinical Medicine |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages= 575|date=February 2020 |pmid=32093211 |doi=10.3390/jcm9020575 |pmc=7074453 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="pmid32109444">{{cite journal |vauthors=Han Q, Lin Q, Jin S, You L |title=Coronavirus 2019-nCoV: A brief perspective from the front line |journal=The Journal of Infection |volume= 80|issue= 4|pages= 373–377|date=February 2020 |pmid=32109444 |doi=10.1016/j.jinf.2020.02.010 |pmc=7102581 }}</ref> Restrictions unprecedented in peacetime were placed on international travel,<ref>{{
=== In plants ===
Line 183:
Marine mammals are also susceptible to viral infections. In 1988 and 2002, thousands of harbour seals were killed in Europe by [[phocine distemper virus]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hall A, Jepson P, Goodman S, Harkonen T | title= Phocine distemper virus in the North and European Seas – Data and models, nature and nurture | journal= Biological Conservation | volume= 131 | issue= 2 | pages= 221–229 | year= 2006 |doi = 10.1016/j.biocon.2006.04.008 | bibcode= 2006BCons.131..221H }}</ref> Many other viruses, including caliciviruses, herpesviruses, adenoviruses and parvoviruses, circulate in marine mammal populations.<ref name="pmid17853907" />
Viruses can also serve as an alternative food source for microorganisms which engage in [[Virovore|virovory]], supplying nucleic acids, nitrogen, and phosphorus through their consumption.<ref name="New Virovore">{{
== See also ==
Line 196:
=== Bibliography ===
{{Refbegin}}
*{{cite book | editor-last = Collier | editor-first =Leslie |editor-last2=Balows| editor-first2 =Albert | editor-last3 =Sussman | editor-first3 =Max | name-list-style = vanc | title = Topley & Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections | publisher = Arnold | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-340-66316-2 |edition=9th|volume=1, ''Virology''}}
*{{cite book | last1=Oxford
| first1=John |last2=Kellam|first2=Paul|last3=Collier|first3=Leslie|
title=Human Virology | publisher=Oxford University Press | publication-place=Oxford | year=2016 | isbn=978-0-19-871468-2 | oclc=968152575}}
*{{cite book | last = Shors | first = Teri | name-list-style = vanc | title = Understanding Viruses | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | year = 2017 | isbn = 978-1284025927 }}
{{Refend}}
| |||