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'''Piaget's theory of cognitive development''', or his [[genetic epistemology]], is a comprehensive theory about the nature and development of human [[intelligence]]. It was originated by the Swiss [[developmental psychologist]] [[Jean Piaget]] (1896–1980). The theory deals with the [[epistemology|nature of knowledge]] itself and how humans gradually come to acquire, construct, and use it.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/wileyse/cognitive_development/0|title=Cognitive Development - Encyclopedia of Special Education: A Reference for the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Disabilities and Other Exceptional Individuals - Credo Reference|website=search.credoreference.com}}</ref> Piaget's theory is mainly known as a [[Developmental stage theories|developmental stage theory]].
In 1919, while working at the Alfred Binet
He believed that children of different ages made different mistakes because of the "quality rather than quantity" of their intelligence.<ref
To Piaget, [[cognitive development]] was a progressive reorganisation of mental processes resulting from biological maturation and environmental experience. He believed that children construct an understanding of the world around them, experience discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their environment, then adjust their ideas accordingly.<ref name=McLeod>{{cite web|last=McLeod|first=S. A.|title=Jean Piaget's Theory
Child-centred classrooms and "[[open education]]" are direct applications of Piaget's views.<ref>Great Lives from History: The Twentieth Century; September 2008, p1–3</ref> Despite its huge success, Piaget's theory has some limitations that Piaget recognised himself: for example, the theory supports sharp stages rather than continuous development ([[horizontal and vertical décalage]]).<ref name="go.galegroup.com2"/>
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===Assimilation and accommodation===
Through his study of the field of education, Piaget focused on two processes, which he named [[Constructivism (philosophy of education)|assimilation]] and [[Constructivism (philosophy of education)|accommodation]]. To Piaget, assimilation meant integrating external elements into structures of lives or environments, or those we could have through experience.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Piaget|first1=Jean|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1522/030181265|title=connaissance de l'objet d'étude avec la connaissance du sujet étudiant entre assimilation et accommodation|last2=Dantier|first2=Bernard|date=2011|publisher=J.-M. Tremblay|isbn=978-1-4123-7505-4|___location=Chicoutimi|doi=10.1522/030181265}}</ref> ''Assimilation'' is how humans [[Perception|perceive]] and [[Adaptation|adapt]] to new information. It is the process of fitting new information into pre-existing cognitive [[Schema (psychology)|schemas]].<ref name=Stassen_p44>{{cite book|first1=Kathleen Stassen|last1=Berger|title=The developing person through the life span|publisher=Worth|isbn=9780716760801|date=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/developingperson0000berg_d0w9/page/44 44]|edition=7th|url=https://archive.org/details/developingperson0000berg_d0w9/page/44}}</ref> Assimilation in which new experiences are reinterpreted to fit into, or assimilate with, old ideas and analyzing new facts accordingly.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Kathleen Stassen|last1=Berger|title=The developing person through the life span|publisher=Worth|isbn=9780716760801|date=2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/developingperson0000berg_d0w9/page/45 45]|edition=7th|url=https://archive.org/details/developingperson0000berg_d0w9/page/45}}</ref> It occurs when humans are faced with new or unfamiliar information and refer to previously learned information in order to make sense of it. In contrast, ''accommodation'' is the process of taking new information in one's environment and altering pre-existing schemas in order to fit in the new information. This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.<ref name
Piaget's understanding was that assimilation and accommodation cannot exist without the other.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Block | first1 = Jack | year = 1982 | title = Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality development | journal = Child Development | volume = 53 | issue = 2| pages = 281–295 | doi=10.2307/1128971| jstor = 1128971 }}</ref> They are two sides of a coin. To assimilate an object into an existing mental schema, one first needs to take into account or accommodate to the particularities of this object to a certain extent. For instance, to recognize (assimilate) an apple as an apple, one must first focus (accommodate) on the contour of this object. To do this, one needs to roughly recognize the size of the object. Development increases the balance, or equilibration, between these two functions. When in balance with each other, assimilation and accommodation generate mental schemas of the operative intelligence. When one function dominates over the other, they generate representations which belong to figurative intelligence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://etec512learningconference-piaget.weebly.com/theory.html|title=Theory|access-date=15 March 2017}}</ref>
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[[File:US Navy 100406-N-7478G-346 Operations Specialist 2nd Class Reginald Harlmon and Electronics Technician 3rd Class Maura Schulze play peek-a-boo with a child in the Children's Ward at Hospital Likas.jpg|thumb|[[US Navy]] sailors play peek-a-boo with a child in the Children's Ward at Hospital Likas.]]
The first of these, the '''sensorimotor stage'''<!--boldface per [[WP:R#PLA]]--> "extends from birth to the acquisition of language".<ref>Tuckman, Bruce W., and David M. Monetti. ''Educational Psychology''. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2010. Print</ref> In this stage, infants progressively construct knowledge and understanding of the world by coordinating experiences (such as vision and hearing) from physical interactions with objects (such as grasping, sucking, and stepping).<ref>Bernstein, Penner, and Clarke-Stewart, Roy. ''Psychology Study Guide''</ref> Infants gain knowledge of the world from the physical actions they perform within it.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web|url=http://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html|title=Sensorimotor Stage|website=www.simplypsychology.org|date=3 November 2022 }}</ref> They progress from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>
Children learn that they are separate from the environment. They can think about aspects of the environment, even though these may be outside the reach of the child's senses. In this stage, according to Piaget, the development of ''[[object permanence]]'' is one of the most important accomplishments.<ref name=Stassen_p44 /> Object permanence is a child's understanding that an object continues to exist even though they cannot see or hear it.<ref name="ReferenceC"/> [[Peekaboo|Peek-a-boo]] is a game in which children who have yet to fully develop object permanence respond to sudden hiding and revealing of a face. By the end of the sensorimotor period, children develop a permanent sense of self and object and will quickly lose interest in Peek-a-boo.<ref name="Santrockk"/>
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====Intuitive thought substage====
A main feature of the pre-operational stage of development is primitive reasoning. Between the ages of four and seven, reasoning changes from symbolic thought to intuitive thought. This stage is "marked by greater dependence on intuitive thinking rather than just perception."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Piaget's Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development {{!}} Lifespan Development |url=https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-lifespandevelopment/chapter/piagets-preoperational-stage-of-cognitive-development/ |access-date=2022-07-07 |website=courses.lumenlearning.com}}</ref> Children begin to have more automatic thoughts that don't require evidence. During this stage there is a heightened sense of curiosity and need to understand how and why things work. Piaget named this substage "intuitive thought" because they are starting to develop more logical thought but cannot explain their reasoning.<ref>{{Cite
Centration is the act of focusing all attention on one characteristic or dimension of a situation, whilst disregarding all others. Conservation is the awareness that altering a substance's appearance does not change its basic properties. Children at this stage are unaware of conservation and exhibit centration. Both centration and conservation can be more easily understood once familiarized with Piaget's most famous experimental task.
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In this task, a child is presented with two identical beakers containing the same amount of liquid. The child usually notes that the beakers do contain the same amount of liquid. When one of the beakers is poured into a taller and thinner container, children who are younger than seven or eight years old typically say that the two beakers no longer contain the same amount of liquid, and that the taller container holds the larger quantity (centration), without taking into consideration the fact that both beakers were previously noted to contain the same amount of liquid. Due to superficial changes, the child was unable to comprehend that the properties of the substances continued to remain the same (conservation).
Irreversibility is a concept developed in this stage which is closely related to the ideas of centration and conservation. Irreversibility refers to when children are unable to mentally reverse a sequence of events. In the same beaker situation, the child does not realize that, if the sequence of events was reversed and the water from the tall beaker was poured back into its original beaker, then the same amount of water would exist. Another example of children's reliance on visual representations is their misunderstanding of "less than" or "more than". When two rows containing equal numbers of blocks are placed in front of a child, one row spread farther apart than the other, the child will think that the row spread farther contains more blocks.<ref name="Santrock8"/><ref name=
Class inclusion refers to a kind of conceptual thinking that children in the preoperational stage cannot yet grasp. Children's inability to focus on two aspects of a situation at once inhibits them from understanding the principle that one category or class can contain several different subcategories or classes.<ref name="Rathus 2006"/> For example, a four-year-old girl may be shown a picture of eight dogs and three cats. The girl knows what cats and dogs are, and she is aware that they are both animals. However, when asked, "Are there more dogs or animals?" she is likely to answer "more dogs". This is due to her difficulty focusing on the two subclasses and the larger class all at the same time. She may have been able to view the dogs as dogs ''or'' animals, but struggled when trying to classify them as both, simultaneously.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Andrews|first=Glenda |author2=Graeme S. Halford |author3=Karen Murphy |author4=Kathy Knox|title=Integration Of Weight And Distance Information In Young Children: The Role Of Relational Complexity|journal=Cognitive Development|year=2009|volume=24|issue=1|pages=49–60|doi=10.1016/j.cogdev.2008.07.005|hdl=10072/29392 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Branco|first=J. C|author2=Lourenco, O|title=Cognitive and linguistic aspects in 5- to 6-year-olds' class inclusion reasoning|journal=Psicologia Educacao Cultura|year=2004|volume=8|issue=2|pages=427–445}}</ref> Similar to this is concept relating to intuitive thought, known as "transitive inference".
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* ''Reversibility'': The child learns that some things that have been changed can be returned to their original state. Water can be frozen and then thawed to become liquid again; however, eggs cannot be unscrambled. Children use reversibility a lot in mathematical problems such as: 2 + 3 = 5 and 5 – 3 = 2.
* ''Conservation'': The ability to understand that the quantity (mass, weight volume) of something doesn't change due to the change of appearance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Elkind |first=David |date=June 1961 |title=Children's Discovery of the Conservation of Mass, Weight, and Volume: Piaget Replication Study II |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00221325.1961.10534372 |journal=The Journal of Genetic Psychology |language=en |volume=98 |issue=2 |pages=219–227 |doi=10.1080/00221325.1961.10534372 |pmid=13726387 |issn=0022-1325}}</ref>
* ''Decentration'': The ability to focus on more that one feature of scenario or problem at a time. This also describes the ability to attend to more than one task at a time.<ref>{{Cite
* ''Seriation'': Arranging items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight, in a methodical way is now demonstrated by the concrete operational child. For example, they can logically arrange a series of different-sized sticks in order by length. Younger children not yet in the concrete stage approach a similar task in a haphazard way.
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* [[Loevinger's stages of ego development|Jane Loevinger's stages of ego development]] occur through "an evolution of stages".<ref name="Forbes, S. A. 2006 pp. 442-443">{{cite journal|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3466300230&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=b35c3cffb1761177fef91a14fa348d28|title=Ego Development|first=Sean A.|last=Forbes|date=30 November 2005|journal=Encyclopedia of Human Development|volume=1|doi=10.4135/9781412952484.n218|isbn=9781412904759}}</ref> "First is the Presocial Stage followed by the Symbiotic Stage, Impulsive Stage, Self-Protective Stage, Conformist Stage, Self-Aware Level: Transition from Conformist to Conscientious Stage, Individualistic Level: Transition from Conscientious to the Autonomous Stage, Conformist Stage, and Integrated Stage".<ref name="Forbes, S. A. 2006 pp. 442-443"/>
* [[Ken Wilber]] has incorporated Piaget's theory in his [[Multidisciplinary approach|multidisciplinary]] field of [[Integral theory (Ken Wilber)|integral theory]]. The human consciousness is structured in hierarchical order and organized in "holon" chains or "[[great chain of being]]", which are based on the level of spiritual and psychological development.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://go.galegroup.com/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3042600539&v=2.1&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=b4fd045913628a8f86d9316598e825e9|title=Wilber, Ken|date=30 November 2009|journal=Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion}}</ref>
*
▲* In 1993 a model was published explaining the connection between Piaget's theory of development and [[Abraham Maslow]]'s concept of [[self-actualization]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/663726|title=A new approach to cognitive development: ontogenesis and the process of initiation|first=Oliver|last=Kress|access-date=15 March 2017|journal=Evolution and Cognition, 2, 319–332}}</ref>
* Cheryl Armon has proposed five stages of " the Good Life". These are "Egoistic Hedonism", "Instrumental Hedonism", "Affective/Altruistic Mutuality", "Individuality", and "Autonomy/Community" (Andreoletti & Demick, 2003, p. 284) (Armon, 1984, p. 40–43).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=56y91WtpwCIC&q=Cheryl+Armon+good+life&pg=PR15|title=Handbook of Adult Development|first1=Jack|last1=Demick|first2=Carrie|last2=Andreoletti|date=31 January 2003|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|via=Google Books|isbn=9780306467585}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dareassociation.org/Papers/Cheryl%20Armon%20Dissertation.pdf|title=Armon, C. (1984). Ideals of the good life: A longitudinal/cross-sectional study of evaluative reasoning in children and adults (Doctoral dissertation, Harvard Graduate School of Education).}}</ref>
* Christopher R. Hallpike proposed that human evolution of cognitive moral understanding had evolved from the beginning of time from its primitive state to the present time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hallpike.com/EvolutionOfMoralUnderstanding.pdf|title=Hallpike, C. R. (2004). The evolution of moral understanding. Prometheus Research Group.|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217004334/http://hallpike.com/EvolutionOfMoralUnderstanding.pdf|archive-date=2014-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unibielefeld.de/(28en,en)/ZIF/Publikationen/Mitteilungen/Aufsaetze/1998-2-Hallpike.pdf|title=Hallpike, C. R. (1998). Moral Development from the Anthropological Perspective. ZiF Mitteilungen, 2(98), 4–18.|access-date=2014-12-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222629/http://www.unibielefeld.de/(28en,en)/ZIF/Publikationen/Mitteilungen/Aufsaetze/1998-2-Hallpike.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-03|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Robert Kegan]] extended Piaget's developmental model to adults in describing what he called constructive-developmental psychology.<ref>Kegan, Robert. The evolving self: problem and process in human development. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA 1982, {{ISBN|0-674-27231-5}}.</ref>
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