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Traditionally, human settlements have developed in mixed-use patterns. However, with [[Industrialisation|industrialization]], governmental zoning regulations were introduced to separate different functions, such as manufacturing, from residential areas. Public health concerns and the protection of property values stood as the motivation behind this separation.<ref name=":3" />
In the United States, the [[Single-family zoning|practice of zoning for single-family residential use]] was instigated to safeguard communities from negative [[Externality|externalities]], including air, noise, and light pollution, associated with heavier industrial practices.<ref name=":3" /> These zones were also constructed to exacerbate racial and class divisions.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Hirt|first=Sonia|date=November 2012|title=Mixed Use by Default: How the Europeans (Don't) Zone|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0885412212451029|journal=Journal of Planning Literature|language=en|volume=27|issue=4|pages=375–393|doi=10.1177/0885412212451029|s2cid=154219333|issn=0885-4122}}</ref>
The heyday of separate-use [[zoning in the United States]] came after World War II when planner and [[New York City Parks Commissioner]], [[Robert Moses]], championed superhighways to break up functions and neighborhoods of the city. The antithesis to these practices came from activist and writer, [[Jane Jacobs]], who was a major proponent of mixed-use zoning, believing it played a key role in creating an organic, diverse, and vibrant streetscape.<ref name=":5" /> These two figures went head-to-head during much of the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jane Jacobs|url=https://www.pps.org/article/jjacobs-2|access-date=2021-10-12|website=www.pps.org}}</ref> Since the 1990s, mixed-use zoning has once again become desirable as it works to combat [[urban sprawl]] and increase economic vitality.<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite web|date=2007|title=Chicago Zoning Ordinance|url=https://www.metroplanning.org/uploads/cms/documents/chicago-zoning-ordinance.pdf|website=Metropolitan Planning Council}}</ref>
In most of Europe, government policy has encouraged the continuation of the city center's role as a main ___location for business, retail, restaurant, and entertainment activity, unlike in the United States where zoning actively discouraged such mixed use for many decades. In England, for example, hotels are included under the same umbrella as “residential,” rather than commercial as they are classified under in the US.<ref name=":8" /> France similarly gravitates towards mixed-use as much of Paris is simply zoned to be “General Urban,” allowing for a variety of uses. Even zones that house the mansions and villas of the aristocrats focus on historical and architectural preservation rather than single family zoning.<ref name=":8" /> Single family zoning is also absent in Germany and Russia where zoning codes make no distinction between different types of housing.<ref name=":8" />
==Contexts==
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'''Social'''
[[File:Pentagon Row.jpg|thumb|Apartments with ground floor retail and ice skating rink at Pentagon Row in Arlington, VA.
This development pattern is centered around the idea of “live, work, play,” transforming buildings and neighborhoods into multi-use entities. Efficiency, productivity, and quality of life are also increased with regards to workplaces holding a plethora of amenities.<ref name=":2" /> Examples include gyms, restaurants, bars, and shopping. Mixed-use neighborhoods promote community and socialization through their bringing together of employees, visitors, and residents.<ref name=":2" /> A distinctive character and sense-of-place is created by transforming single use districts that may run for eight hours a day (ex. commercial office buildings running 9am - 5pm) into communities that can run eighteen hours a day through the addition of cafes, restaurants, bars, and nightclubs.<ref name="planning.org" /> Safety of neighborhoods in turn may be increased as people stay out on the streets for longer hours.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Trench|first1=Sylvia|last2=Oc|first2=Taner|last3=Tiesdell|first3=Steven|date=1992|title=Safer Cities for Women: Perceived Risks and Planning Measures|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40113842|journal=The Town Planning Review|volume=63|issue=3|pages=279–296|doi=10.3828/tpr.63.3.r16862416261h337|jstor=40113842|issn=0041-0020}}</ref>
'''Environmental'''
Mixed-use neighborhoods and buildings have a strong ability to adapt to changing social and economic environments. When the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] hit, New York retailers located on long, commercially oriented blocks suffered severely as they were no longer attracting an audience of passersby. By combining multiple functions into one building or development, mixed-use districts can build resiliency through their ability to attract and maintain visitors.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Chaffin|first=Joshua|date=2021-10-09|title=Manhattan's office towers are a tale of the haves and the have-nots|work=Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/0fc60c68-7e8f-492d-ae4c-f66272793212|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221211191208/https://www.ft.com/content/0fc60c68-7e8f-492d-ae4c-f66272793212|archive-date=2022-12-11|url-access=subscription|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-23}}</ref>
More sustainable transportation practices are also fostered. A study of [[Guangzhou|Guangzhou, China]], done by the Journal of Geographical Information Science, found that taxis located in regions where buildings housed a greater variety of functions had greatly reduced traveling distances.<ref name=":5" /> Shorter traveling distances, in turn, support the use of [[Micromobility|micro-mobility]]. Pedestrian and [[Bicycle-friendly|bike-friendly]] infrastructure are fostered due to increased density and reduced distances between housing, workplaces, retail businesses, and other amenities and destinations.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10835547.2013.12090352| doi=10.1080/10835547.2013.12090352| title=An Empirical Study of the Efficacy of Mixed-Use Development: The Seattle Experience| year=2013| last1=Delisle| first1=James| last2=Grissom| first2=Terry| journal=Journal of Real Estate Literature| volume=21| pages=25–57}}</ref> Additionally, mixed-use projects promote health and wellness, as these developments often provide better access (whether it be by foot, bicycle, or transit) to farmer's markets and grocery stores.<ref name="planning.org" /> However, hybrid metropolises, areas that have large and tall buildings which accommodate a combination of public and private interests, do not show a decrease in carbon emissions in comparison to metropolitan areas that have a low, dense configuration. This is possibly because hybrid metropolises are prone to attract car traffic from visitors.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zagow |first1=Maged |title=Does mixed-use development in the metropolis lead to less carbon emissions? |journal=Urban Climate |date=1 December 2020 |volume=34 |page=100682 |doi=10.1016/j.uclim.2020.100682 |bibcode=2020UrbCl..3400682Z |s2cid=224862707 }}</ref>
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== Drawbacks ==
'''Equity'''
[[File:Vessel in Hudson Yards, 2021-10-02.jpg|thumb|"The Vessel" - Tourist attraction featuring interconnected staircases with viewing ledges in mixed-use neighborhood of Hudson Yards, NY.
Due to the speculative nature of large scale real estate developments, mega-mixed-use projects often fall short on meeting equity and affordability goals. High-end residential, upscale retail, and [[Class A Office Space|Class A office spaces]] appealing to high-profile tenants are often prioritized due to their speculative potential.<ref name=":1" /> There is also a trend towards making residential spaces in mixed-use developments to be condominiums, rather than rental spaces. A study done by the [[Journal of the American Planning Association]] found that a focus on homeownership predominantly excludes individuals working in public services, trades, cultural, sales and service, and manufacturing occupations from living in amenity-rich city centers.<ref name=":6" /> Despite incentives like density bonuses, municipalities and developers rarely put a significant focus on affordable housing provisions in these plans.<ref name=":6" />
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==== Hudson Yards, NYC ====
[[Hudson Yards (development)|Hudson Yards]] is the largest private real estate development in the history of the United States.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=2021-04-30|title=COVID-19 Pandemic Accelerates Mixed-Use Development Trends|url=https://www.beckgroup.com/beck-think/covid-19-accelerates-mixed-use-trends/|access-date=2021-11-11|website=The Beck Group|language=en-US}}</ref> The project commenced in 2005 when the [[New York City Council]] approved the rezoning of the district from low-density manufacturing to high-density mixed use.<ref name=":4" /> The once deteriorated piers, located on the West Side of Midtown, are being refashioned into commercial office space, a mix of affordable and luxury housing, restaurants and retail space, a high-end [[Equinox Group|Equinox]] hotel and fitness center, and multiple public parks. Set to be completed in 2024, the development is expected to accommodate 125,000 workers, visitors, and residents daily.<ref name=":7" /> [[The Related Companies|Related Companies]] and [[Oxford Properties]] are the primary developers on this plan.<ref name=":7" />
This project is also the US's largest project to ever be financed by TIF ([[tax increment financing]]) subsidies. It did not require voter approval, nor did it have to go through the
==See also==
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