Government by algorithm: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 13:09, 14 March 2024

Revision as of 08:58, 20 March 2024

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{{Governance|Models}}

'''Government by algorithm'''<ref name=sstandford>{{cite web|author=<!--Not stated--> |title=Government by Algorithm: A Review and an Agenda |url=https://law.stanford.edu/publications/government-by-algorithm-a-review-and-an-agenda/ |website=Stanford Law School |access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> (also known as '''algorithmic democracy'''<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=García-Marzá |first=Domingo |last2=Calvo |first2=Patrici |date=2024 |title=Algorithmic Democracy |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-53015-9 |journal=Philosophy and Politics - Critical Explorations |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-53015-9 |issn=2352-8370}}</ref>, '''algorithmic regulation''',<ref name=medina>{{cite journal |last1=Medina |first1=Eden |title=Rethinking algorithmic regulation. |journal=Kybernetes |date=2015 |volume=44 |issue=6/7 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1108/K-02-2015-0052 |url=http://wosc.co/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/Medina-Rethinking-Algorithmic-Regulation.pdf}}</ref> '''regulation by algorithms''', '''algorithmic governance''',<ref name="Engin">{{cite journal |last1=Engin |first1=Zeynep |last2=Treleaven |first2=Philip |title=Algorithmic Government: Automating Public Services and Supporting Civil Servants in using Data Science Technologies |journal=The Computer Journal|date=March 2019 |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=448–460 |doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxy082|doi-access=free}}</ref> '''algocratic governance''', '''algorithmic legal order''' or '''algocracy'''<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Danaher |first1=John |title=The Threat of Algocracy: Reality, Resistance and Accommodation |journal=Philosophy & Technology |date=1 September 2016 |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=245–268 |doi=10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |s2cid=146674621 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13347-015-0211-1 |access-date=26 January 2022 |issn=2210-5441}}</ref>) is an alternative form of [[government]] or [[social order]]ing where the usage of computer [[algorithm]]s is applied to regulations, law enforcement, and generally any aspect of everyday life such as transportation or land registration.<ref name="karen">{{cite journal |last1=Yeung |first1=Karen |title=Algorithmic regulation: A critical interrogation |journal=Regulation & Governance |date=December 2018 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=505–523 |doi=10.1111/rego.12158|s2cid=157086008 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Katzenbach |first1=Christian |last2=Ulbricht |first2=Lena |title=Algorithmic governance |journal=Internet Policy Review |date=29 November 2019 |volume=8 |issue=4 |doi=10.14763/2019.4.1424 |hdl=10419/210652 |url=https://policyreview.info/concepts/algorithmic-governance |access-date=19 March 2020 |issn=2197-6775|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abril |first1=Rubén Rodríguez |title=DERECOM. Derecho de la Comunicación. - An approach to the algorithmic legal order and to its civil, trade and financial projection |website=www.derecom.com |url=http://www.derecom.com/secciones/articulos-de-fondo/item/398-an-approach-to-the-algorithmic-legal-order-and-to-its-civil-trade-and-financial-projection |access-date=20 May 2020 |language=es-es}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Rule by Algorithm? Big Data and the Threat of Algocracy |url=https://ieet.org/index.php/IEET2/more/danaher20140107 |access-date=20 May 2020 |work=ieet.org}}</ref><ref name=algocracyblockchain>{{citation |last1=Werbach |first1=Kevin |title=The Siren Song: Algorithmic Governance By Blockchain |date=24 September 2018 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3578610}}.</ref> The term "government by algorithm" has appeared in academic literature as an alternative for "algorithmic governance" in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williamson |first1=Ben |title=Decoding identity: Reprogramming pedagogic identities through algorithmic governance |journal=British Educational Research Association Conference |date=January 2013 |url=https://www.academia.edu/4477644 |access-date=26 December 2020}}</ref> A related term, algorithmic regulation, is defined as setting the standard, monitoring and modifying behaviour by means of computational algorithms{{snd}}automation of [[judiciary]] is in its scope.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hildebrandt |first1=Mireille |title=Algorithmic regulation and the rule of law |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |date=6 August 2018 |volume=376 |issue=2128 |pages=20170355 |doi=10.1098/rsta.2017.0355|pmid=30082301 |bibcode=2018RSPTA.37670355H |doi-access=free|hdl=2066/200765 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> In the context of blockchain, it is also known as '''blockchain governance'''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lumineau |first1=Fabrice |last2=Wang |first2=Wenqian |last3=Schilke |first3=Oliver |title=Blockchain Governance—A New Way of Organizing Collaborations? |journal=Organization Science |date=1 March 2021 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=500–521 |doi=10.1287/orsc.2020.1379 |s2cid=225123270 |issn=1047-7039|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Government by algorithm raises new challenges that are not captured in the [[e-government]] literature and the practice of public administration.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Veale |first1=Michael |last2=Brass |first2=Irina |title=Administration by Algorithm? Public Management Meets Public Sector Machine Learning |date=2019 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=3375391}}</ref> Some sources equate [[cyberocracy]], which is a hypothetical [[Government#Forms|form of government]] that rules by the effective use of information,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7745.pdf |title=Cyberocracy, Cyberspace, and Cyberology:Political Effects of the Information Revolution |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1991|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/reprints/2007/RAND_RP222.pdf|title=Cyberocracy is Coming |publisher=RAND Corporation|author=David Ronfeldt|date=1992|access-date=12 Dec 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1=Ronfeldt |first1=David |last2=Varda |first2=Danielle |title=The Prospects for Cyberocracy (Revisited) |date=1 December 2008 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |ssrn=1325809}}.</ref> with algorithmic governance, although algorithms are not the only means of processing information.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transparency in governance, through cyberocracy |url=https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2019/07/04/transparency-in-governance-through-cyberocracy |website=The Kathmandu Post |first=Bimal Pratap |last=Shah |date=July 4, 2019 |access-date=25 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Hudson |first1=Alex |title='Far more than surveillance' is happening and could change how government is run |url=https://metro.co.uk/2019/08/28/far-more-than-surveillance-is-already-in-place-and-cyberocracy-could-change-how-government-is-run-10637802/ |website=Metro |access-date=25 April 2020 |date=28 August 2019}}</ref> [[Nello Cristianini]] and Teresa Scantamburlo argued that the combination of a human society and certain regulation algorithms (such as reputation-based scoring) forms a [[social machine]].<ref name=socialmachine>{{cite journal |last1=Cristianini |first1=Nello |last2=Scantamburlo |first2=Teresa |title=On social machines for algorithmic regulation |journal=AI & Society |date=8 October 2019 |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=645–662 |doi=10.1007/s00146-019-00917-8 |arxiv=1904.13316 |bibcode=2019arXiv190413316C |s2cid=140233845 |issn=1435-5655}}</ref>

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{{See also|Chatbot#Politics}}

In 2018, an activist named Michihito Matsuda ran for mayor in the [[Tama, Tokyo|Tama city area of Tokyo]] as a human proxy for an [[artificial intelligence]] program.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |first=Michihito |last=Matsuda |title=POLITICS 2028: WHY ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE WILL REPLACE POLITICIANS |website=SlideShare |date=14 July 2018 |url=https://www.slideshare.net/MichihitoMatsuda/politics-2028-why-artificial-intelligence-will-replace-politicians-by-michihito-matsuda |access-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> While election posters and campaign material used the term ''robot'', and displayed [[stock images]] of a feminine [[Android (robot)|android]], the "AI mayor" was in fact a [[machine learning algorithm]] trained using Tama city datasets.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Johnston |first1=Lachlan |title=There's an AI Running for the Mayoral Role of Tama City, Tokyo |url=https://www.otaquest.com/tama-city-ai-mayor/ |website=OTAQUEST |access-date=22 September 2019 |date=12 April 2018}}</ref> The project was backed by high-profile executives Tetsuzo Matsumoto of [[Softbank]] and Norio Murakami of [[Google]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ai-mayor.com/|title=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019|website=AI党 &#124; 多摩市議会議員選挙2019}}</ref> Michihito Matsuda came third in the election, being defeated by [[Hiroyuki Abe (politician)|Hiroyuki Abe]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Werden Bots die besseren Politiker? |url=https://www.politik-kommunikation.de/ressorts/artikel/werden-bots-die-besseren-politiker-73781989 |access-date=31 October 2020 |work=Politik & Kommunikation |language=de}}</ref> Organisers claimed that the 'AI mayor' was programmed to analyze [[Online petition|citizen petitions]] put forward to the [[city council]] in a more 'fair and balanced' way than human politicians.<ref>{{cite web|title=Robot to run for mayor in Japan promising 'fairness and balance' for all|first1=Abigail|last1=O'Leary|first2=Anna |last2=Verdon|date=April 17, 2018|website=mirror |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/robot-run-mayor-japan-world-12377782}}</ref>

In 2018, [[Cesar Hidalgo]] presented the idea of [[augumented democracy]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Perez |first1=Oren |title=Collaborative е-Rulemaking, Democratic Bots, and the Future of Digital Democracy |journal=Digital Government: Research and Practice |date=31 January 2020 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1145/3352463 |s2cid=211519367 |language=en |issn=2691-199X|doi-access=free }}</ref> In an augumented democracy, legislation is done by [[digital twin]]s of every single person<ref name=":0" />.

In 2019, AI-powered messenger [[chatbot]] SAM participated in the discussions on social media connected to an electoral race in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sarmah |first1=Harshajit |title=World's First AI-powered Virtual Politician SAM Joins The Electoral Race In New Zealand |url=https://analyticsindiamag.com/worlds-first-ai-powered-virtual-politician-sam-joins-the-electoral-race-in-new-zealand/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=Analytics India Magazine |date=28 January 2019}}</ref> The creator of SAM, Nick Gerritsen, believes SAM will be advanced enough to run as a [[Virtual politician|candidate]] by late 2020, when New Zealand has its next general election.<ref>{{cite news |title=Meet SAM, world's first AI politician that hopes to run for New Zealand election in 2020 |date=26 November 2017 |work=Hindustan Times |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171126111001/http://www.hindustantimes.com/science/meet-sam-world-s-first-ai-politician-that-hopes-to-run-for-new-zealand-election-in-2020/story-TPnkQNM4UQae3IgcifZq4K.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=November 26, 2017 |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

In 2022, the chatbot "Leader Lars" or "Leder Lars" was nominated for [[The Synthetic Party]] to run in the 2022 [[Danish Realm|Danish]] parliamentary election,<ref>{{cite news |last=Sternberg |first=Sarah |date=20 June 2022 |title=Danskere vil ind på den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=Danes want to enter the political scene with artificial intelligence |newspaper=[[Jyllands-Posten]] |url=https://jyllands-posten.dk/kultur/ECE14145385/danskere-vil-ind-paa-den-politiske-scene-med-kunstig-intelligens/ |access-date=2022-06-20}}</ref> and was built by the artist collective [https://computerlars.com Computer Lars].<ref>{{cite news |last=Diwakar |first=Amar |date=2022-08-22 |title=Can an AI-led Danish party usher in an age of algorithmic politics? |trans-title= |newspaper=[[TRT World]] |url=https://www.trtworld.com/magazine/can-an-ai-led-danish-party-usher-in-an-age-of-algorithmic-politics-60008 |access-date=2022-08-22}}</ref> Leader Lars differed from earlier virtual politicians by leading a [[political party]] and by not pretending to be an objective candidate.<ref>{{cite news |last=Xiang |first=Chloe |date=13 October 2022 |title=This Danish Political Party Is Led by an AI |trans-title= |newspaper=[[Motherboard (website)|Vice: Motherboard]] |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/jgpb3p/this-danish-political-party-is-led-by-an-ai |access-date=2022-10-13}}</ref> This chatbot engaged in critical discussions on politics with users from around the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hearing |first=Alice |date=14 October 2022 |title=A.I. chatbot is leading a Danish political party and setting its policies. Now users are grilling it for its stance on political landmines |url=https://fortune.com/2022/10/14/ai-chatbot-leader-lars-the-synthetic-party-discord-russia-ukraine-crimea-policy/ |work=Fortune }}</ref>

In 2023, In the Japanese town of Manazuru, a mayoral candidate called "[[AI Mayer|AI Mayor]]" hopes to be the first AI-powered officeholder in Japan in November 2023. This candidacy is said to be supported by a group led by Michihito Matsuda.<ref name=":0" /> <ref>{{cite news |date=2023-11-07|title=Danskere vil ind den politiske scene med kunstig intelligens |trans-title=AI Mayer run to the election in Manazuru Town|newspaper=Tokyo Sports |url= https://www.tokyo-sports.co.jp/articles/-/282034 |access-date=2023-11-25}}</ref>

===Management of infection===

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===Criticism===

There are potential risks associated with the use of algorithms in government. Those include [[Algorithmic bias|algorithms becoming susceptible to bias]],<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1">{{cite web |url=https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/artificial_intelligence_for_citizen_services.pdf|title=Artificial Intelligence for Citizen Services and Government|last=Mehr|first=Hila|date=August 2017|website=ash.harvard.edu|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> a lack of transparency in how an algorithm may make decisions,<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6">{{cite web|url=https://www.capgemini.com/consulting/wp-content/uploads/sites/30/2017/10/ai-in-public-sector.pdf|title=Unleashing the potential of Artificial Intelligence in the Public Sector|last=Capgemini Consulting|date=2017|website=www.capgemini.com|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> and the accountability for any such decisions.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> According to a 2016's book [[Weapons of Math Destruction]], algorithms and [[big data]] are suspected to increase inequality due to opacity, scale and damage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Shikha |title=Weapons of Math Destruction: How Big Data Increases Inequality and Threatens Democracy |journal=Vikalpa: The Journal for Decision Makers |date=June 2019 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=97–98 |doi=10.1177/0256090919853933 |s2cid=198779932 |issn=0256-0909|doi-access=free }}</ref>

There is also a serious concern that [[gaming the system|gaming]] by the regulated parties might occur, once more [[Right to explanation|transparency is brought into the decision making by algorithmic governance]], regulated parties might try to manipulate their outcome in own favor and even use [[adversarial machine learning]].<ref name=sstandford/><ref name=":0" /><ref name=socialmachine/> According to [[Yuval Noah Harari|Harari]], the conflict between democracy and dictatorship is seen as a conflict of two different data-processing systems—AI and algorithms may swing the advantage toward the latter by processing enormous amounts of information centrally.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harari |first1=Story by Yuval Noah |title=Why Technology Favors Tyranny |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/10/yuval-noah-harari-technology-tyranny/568330/ |access-date=11 April 2020 |work=The Atlantic}}</ref>

In 2018, the Netherlands employed an algorithmic system SyRI (Systeem Risico Indicatie) to detect citizens perceived being high risk for committing [[welfare fraud]], which quietly flagged thousands of people to investigators.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Europe Limits Government by Algorithm. The US, Not So Much |url=https://www.wired.com/story/europe-limits-government-algorithm-us-not-much/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref> This caused a public protest. The district court of Hague shut down SyRI referencing [[Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights]] (ECHR).<ref>Rechtbank Den Haag 5 February 2020, C-09-550982-HA ZA 18-388 (English), {{ECLI|ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2020:1878}}</ref>