|
There are general-purpose Linux distributions that target a specific audience, such as users of a specific language or geographical area. Such examples include [[Ubuntu Kylin]] for Chinese language users and BlankOn targeted at Indonesians. Profession-specific distributions include [[Ubuntu Studio]] for media creation and DNALinux for [[bioinformatics]]. There is also a Muslim-oriented distribution of the name [[Sabily]] that consequently also provides some Islamic tools. Certain organizations use slightly specialized Linux distributions internally, including [[GendBuntu]] used by the French [[National Gendarmerie]], [[Goobuntu]] used internally by Google, and [[Astra Linux]] developed specifically for the Russian army.
'''DONOT REMOVE THIS FOR NEXT 2 HRS PLS'''
'''Q1.List the features of linux os.'''
'''Linux''' is an open-source and free operating system whose core component is the Linux kernel. Its design and characteristics are similar to the Unix operating system. For that reason, it is called a '''Unix-like''' operating system. It creates a connection between the hardware and the user and executes the applications.
'''Free Operating System,''' Open-source operating System, Flexibility ,Customizability ,Stability ,Lightweight , Portability, Graphical User Interface, Multiuser and Multitask support, Well Structure File System, Security , Accessible Update
Q2. What are the various linux distributions.
'''There are numerous Linux distributions, each with its own unique features, focus, and target audience. Some popular Linux distributions include:'''
'''Ubuntu ,Debian , CentOS ,Fedora ,Arch Linux ,openSUSE , Linux Mint ,Elementary OS'''
'''Q3.Explain the following llinux commands:'''
'''cat: This command is short for "concatenate" and is used to display the contents of one or more files to the standard output'''
'''rm: The "rm" command stands for "remove" and is used to delete files or directories from the file system.'''
'''mv: This command stands for "move" and is used to move files or directories from one ___location to another.'''
'''cp: The "cp" command stands for "copy" and is used to copy files or directories from one ___location to another.'''
'''mkdir: This command stands for "make directory" and is used to create new directories (folders) in the file system.'''
'''cd: The "cd" command stands for "change directory" and is used to change the current working directory in the terminal.'''
'''date: This command is used to display or set the system date and time.'''
'''time: The "time" command is used to measure the execution time of a command or program.'''
'''bc: This command stands for "basic calculator" and is a command-line calculator with support for mathematical expressions and functions.'''
'''history: The "history" command is used to display a list of previously executed commands in the terminal session.'''
'''Q5.How to create Users in linux.'''
'''In Linux, you can create users using the `useradd` command followed by the username. Here's a basic guide to create a user:'''
'''1. Open a terminal window.'''
'''. Use the `useradd` command followed by the username you want to create. For example, to create a user named "john", you would type:'''
''' sudo useradd john'''
'''. Optionally, you can set a password for the new user using the `passwd` command:'''
''' sudo passwd john'''
''' You'll be prompted to enter and confirm the password for the user.'''
'''. Once the user is created, you can switch to that user using the `su` command followed by the username:'''
''' su - john'''
''' You'll be prompted to enter the password for the user.'''
'''. To switch back to your original user, simply type:'''
''' Exit'''
'''Q6.How do you set file permission in linux. Explain with an example.'''
'''In Linux, file permissions can be set using the `chmod` command. The `chmod` command allows you to specify permissions for the owner of the file, the group associated with the file, and other users.'''
'''Here's how you can set file permissions using `chmod` with an example:'''
'''1. Open a terminal window.'''
'''2. . Use the `chmod` command followed by the permission mode and the filename. The permission mode consists of three digits, each representing the permissions for the owner, group, and others, respectively.'''
''' - The first digit represents the owner's permissions.'''
''' - The second digit represents the group's permissions.'''
''' - The third digit represents the permissions for others.'''
''' Each digit can be calculated by adding the numeric values of the permissions:'''
''' Read (r) = 4 , Write (w) = 2 ,Execute (x) = 1'''
''' For example:'''
''' - `chmod 755 filename` gives the owner full permissions (read, write, execute), and read and execute permissions to the group and others.'''
''' - `chmod 644 filename` gives the owner read and write permissions, and read-only permissions to the group and others.'''
'''. Here's a specific example:'''
''' chmod 755 myfile.txt'''
''' This command sets the permissions of the file "myfile.txt" so that the owner has read, write, and execute permissions (7), and the group and others have read and execute permissions (5).'''
'''. You can verify the permissions of the file using the `ls -l` command, which will display detailed information about the file, including its permissions.'''
'''Q7.What is a package and how to install it in linux.'''
'''In Linux, a package is a compressed archive file that contains software, along with metadata such as dependencies, version information, and installation scripts. Packages are used to distribute and install software on Linux systems efficiently.'''
'''There are several package management systems used in Linux distributions, such as:'''
'''Here's a general overview of how to install a package in Linux using the APT package manager (commonly used in Debian-based distributions like Ubuntu):'''
'''Update Package Lists: Before installing a new package, it's a good practice to update the local package lists to ensure you're installing the latest version of the software. You can do this by running:'''
''' sudo apt updat'''
'''Search for the Package: If you're not sure about the exact name of the package you want to installE, you can search for it using:'''
''' apt search package_name'''
'''Install the Package: Once you've found the package you want to install, you can install it using'''
''' sudo apt install package_name'''
'''Replace `package_name` with the name of the package you want to install.'''
'''Provide Administrator Privileges: You'll likely need to provide your password to authorize the installation process since you're using the `sudo` command to run the installation with administrative privileges.'''
'''Follow On-Screen Instructions: Depending on the package and its dependencies, you may be prompted to confirm the installation or make choices during the installation process. Follow any on-screen instructions to complete the installation.'''
'''Verify Installation: Once the installation is complete, you can verify that the package was installed successfully by running:'''
''' dpkg -l | grep package_name'''
'''Replace `package_name` with the name of the package you installed. This command will list all installed packages matching the specified name.'''
'''Q8.Explain compress and uncompress files in linux os.'''
'''In Linux, you can compress and uncompress files using various compression utilities. Two commonly used utilities for this purpose are `gzip` and `gunzip`, which are used to compress and uncompress files respectively using the gzip compression algorithm.'''
'''Here's how you can compress and uncompress files using `gzip` and `gunzip`:'''
'''Compressing Files with gzip (`gzip`):'''
'''Compress a Single File:'''
''' To compress a single file, you can use the `gzip` command followed by the name of the file you want to compress.'''
''' This will compress `file.txt` and create a compressed file named `file.txt.gz`.'''
'''Compress Multiple Files:'''
''' You can also compress multiple files at once by providing a list of file names as arguments to the `gzip` command.'''
'''Uncompressing Files with gunzip (`gunzip`):'''
'''Uncompress a Single File'''
''' To uncompress a single compressed file, you can use the `gunzip` command followed by the name of the compressed file you want to uncompress.'''
'''Uncompress Multiple Files:'''
''' Similar to compressing, you can uncompress multiple compressed files at once by providing a list of file names as arguments to the `gunzip` command.'''
'''Additionally, you can combine the `tar` command with `gzip` to create compressed archives of directories or multiple files.'''
''' This command will create a compressed archive named `archive.tar.gz` containing the contents of the `directory` directory.'''
''' This command will uncompress and extract the contents of the `archive.tar.gz` compressed archive.'''
'''Q9Explain file attributes in linux.'''
'''In Linux, file attributes determine various permissions and properties associated with files and directories. These attributes control who can access, modify, or execute a file, as well as other properties such as ownership and timestamps. The main file attributes in Linux are:'''
'''Permission Bits:'''
''' Permission bits define who can read, write, or execute a file. There are three types of permission bits: **user**, **group**, and **others**. Each type has three permission settings: **read (r)**, **write (w)**, and **execute (x)**. These permissions are represented by characters in the file's permission string.'''
'''Ownership:'''
''' Every file in Linux is associated with an owner and a group. The owner is usually the user who created the file, while the group determines which users belong to a specific group that has access to the file.'''
'''Timestamps:'''
''' Every file has three timestamps associated with it:'''
'''Access Time (atime)**: The last time the file was accessed.'''
'''Modification Time (mtime)**: The last time the file's contents were modified.'''
'''Change Time (ctime)**: The last time the file's metadata (permissions, ownership, etc.) was changed.'''
'''File Type:'''
''' Linux recognizes different file types, such as regular files, directories, symbolic links, devices, sockets, and named pipes.'''
'''Extended Attributes:'''
''' Extended attributes provide additional metadata beyond the standard file attributes.'''
'''ACLs (Access Control Lists):'''
''' ACLs allow for more granular control over file permissions by defining access rules beyond the standard user, group, and others permissions.'''
'''Q10. Write the differences between linux ,mac and windows os.'''
'''key differences between Linux, macOS, and Windows operating systems:'''
'''Kernel and Core System:'''
'''Linux: Linux is built around the Linux kernel, which is open-source and free to use. It comes in many distributions (distros), each with its package management system and user interface.'''
''' - macOS: macOS is based on the Unix-like Darwin kernel, developed by Apple. It is proprietary and only runs on Apple hardware.'''
''' - Windows: Windows is developed by Microsoft and runs on the Windows NT kernel. It is also proprietary and is the most widely used desktop operating system.'''
'''User Interface:'''
''' - Linux: Linux offers a variety of desktop environments (DEs) like GNOME, KDE, XFCE, etc., each with its look and feel. Some distributions offer a choice of DE during installation.'''
''' - macOS: macOS has a unified user interface called Aqua, known for its sleek design and ease of use.'''
''' - Windows: Windows provides a customizable desktop environment with a Start menu, taskbar, and window management features.'''
'''Software Ecosystem:'''
''' - Linux: Linux offers a vast array of open-source software available through package managers like APT, YUM, or Pacman. It also supports running Windows software through compatibility layers like Wine.'''
''' - macOS: macOS has a robust software ecosystem with access to the Mac App Store and third-party software. It also supports running Unix and Linux software through tools like Homebrew or MacPorts.'''
''' - Windows: Windows has the largest software ecosystem, with compatibility for a wide range of applications and games. It has the Microsoft Store for apps and supports running Linux software through Windows Subsystem for Linux (WSL).'''
'''QB3. Explain BASH and its functions.'''
'''The. Linux Bash is also known as 'Bourne-again Shell.' It is a command language'''
'''interpreter for the Linux based system. It is a replacement of Bourne shell (sh). It was developed'''
'''under the GNU Project and written by Brian Fox. Nowadays, Bash is the default user shell of'''
'''most of the Linux distributions.'''
'''The Bash is a command language interpreter as well as a programming language. It'''
'''supports variables, functions, and flow control, like other programming languages. It can also'''
'''read and execute the commands from a file, which is called a shell script.'''
'''o It provides command-line editing'''
'''o It contains unlimited size command history'''
'''o It provides Job Control'''
'''o It facilitates with Shell Functions and Aliases'''
'''o It provides the indexed arrays of unlimited size'''
'''o It contains integer arithmetic in any base from 2 to 64'''
4. Explain the following linux commands:
i. head: used to display the first part of the file
ii. tail: used to display the last ten lines of one or more files
iii. wc (with all options): counting the lines, words and characters in a file
options: 1. -l: prints the number of lines present in the file
2. -w: prints the number of words present in the file
3. -c: displays count of bytes present in the file
4. -m: displays count of characters from a file
5. -version: displays the version of wc which is currently running on your system
iv. cmp: used to compare the 2 files byte to byte and helps you to find out whether
the 2 files are identical or not
v. sudo: allows you to run programs with the security privileges of another user
vi. bc: used for command line calculator
vii. tar: compresses files in linux
viii. pwd: prints the working directory
ix. grep: used for searching and manipulating text patterns within files
x. cut: for cutting out the sections from each line of files
xi. ls –l: used to list information about files and directories within the file system
QB5. Differentiate between soft link and hard link.
Soft Link
Soft Link is an alias to the original file similar to the shortcut feature in the Windows OS.
It contains the ___location to the original file but not the contents.
Soft Links have different Inode values pointing to the original value.
Links can be established across filesystem.
The link becomes inaccessible when the original file is removed.
Soft links can link both to a file or a directory.
Hard Link
Hard Link is the exact replica of the original file it is pointing to.
It contains the actual contents of the file.
Hard Links share the same Inode value pointing to the same file ___location.
Links cannot be established outside the filesystem.
Changes in the hard linked file will reflect in the other files.
Hard links can only link to a file, not a directory.
QB6. Explain the backup and recovery tools available in linux.
• Tar: this unix like command creates and manipulates file archives
• Rsync: tool for file synchronization and backups
• Dd: data duplicator creates disc images and backups
• Cpio: tool creates and extracts archives
• Dump and restore: backup at the file system level
QB7. Explain setting file permissions in detail
To change file and directory permissions, use the command chmod (change mode). The owner of
a file can change the permissions for user (u), group (g), or others (o) by adding (+) or
subtracting (-) the read, write, and execute permissions.
Access class
u (user)
g (group)
o (other)
a (all: u, g, and o)
Operator
+ (add access)
- (remove access)
= (set exact access)
Access Type
r (read)
w (write)
x (execute)
QB8. List the tools for system monitoring.
• Top: top command displays the linux processes
• Vmstat: virtual memory statistics
• W: to find out who is logged on and what they are doing
• Uptime: tells the linux system has been running
• Ps: displays the linux processes
QB9. Explain different types of users.
In linux, there are three different user types:
• Root: the main user account in linux. It is automatically created during
installation. It has the highest privilege in the system. It can do any
administrative work and can access any service.
• Regular: normal user account. During installation one regular user is created
automatically. After installation, we can create as many regular user account
as required. It has moderate privilege. It is used for routine works
• Service: these accounts are created by installation packages whey they are
installed. These accounts are used by services to run processes and execute
the functions. These are neither intended nor should be used for routine work
== See also ==
| 