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* [[Epigenetics|Epigenetic]] changes which alter disease risk of not only the child but also that of the next generation - i.e. after a famine, grandchildren of women who were pregnant during the famine, are born smaller than the normal size, despite nutritional deficiencies having been fulfilled.
These changes in the maternal environmental can be due to nutritional alteration,<ref name = "Fleming_2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fleming TP, Velazquez MA, Eckert JJ, Lucas ES, Watkins AJ | title = Nutrition of females during the peri-conceptional period and effects on foetal programming and health of offspring | journal = Animal Reproduction Science | volume = 130 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 193–7 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22341375 | doi = 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2012.01.015 }}</ref> hormonal fluctuations<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Talge NM, Neal C, Glover V | title = Antenatal maternal stress and long-term effects on child neurodevelopment: how and why? | journal = Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines | volume = 48 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 245–61 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17355398 | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01714.x | pmc = 11016282 }}</ref> or exposure to toxins.
== History ==
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