Gender and development: Difference between revisions

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'''Theoretical approach'''

The term “women in development” was originally coined by a Washington-based network of female development professionals in the early 1970s<ref name="Tinker1990">{{cite book|author=Irene Tinker|title=Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R6aCgdeafDAC|year=1990|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-506158-1|page=30}}</ref> who sought to question [[trickle down effect|trickle down]] existing theories of development by contesting that economic development had identical impacts on men and women.<ref name="Razavi1995p2">{{cite report |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |year=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper Series |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |page=2 |access-date=22 November 2013 |hdl=10419/148819 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055921/http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Women in Development movement (WID) gained momentum in the 1970s, driven by the resurgence of women's movements in developed countries, and particularly through liberal feminists striving for equal rights and labour opportunities in the United States.<ref name="Razavi1995p3">{{cite report |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |year=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper Series |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |page=3 |access-date=22 November 2013 |hdl=10419/148819 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055921/http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Liberal feminism]], postulating that women's disadvantages in society may be eliminated by breaking down customary expectations of women by offering better education to women and introducing equal opportunity programmes,<ref name="Connell1987">{{cite book|author=Robert Connell|title=Gender and power: society, the person, and sexual politics|url=https://archive.org/details/genderpowersocie00conn_0|url-access=registration|year=1987|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-1430-3}}</ref> had a notable influence on the formulation of the WID approaches.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/>

The focus of the 1970s [[feminist movements]] and their repeated calls for employment opportunities in the development agenda meant that particular attention was given to the productive labour of women, leaving aside reproductive concerns and social welfare.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> This approach was pushed forward by WID advocates, reacting to the general policy environment maintained by early colonial authorities and post-war development authorities, wherein inadequate reference to the work undertook by women as producers was made, as they were almost solely identified as their roles as wives and mothers.<ref name="Razavi1995p3"/> The WID's opposition to this “welfare approach” was in part motivated by the work of Danish economist [[Ester Boserup]] in the early 1970s, who challenged the assumptions of the said approach and highlighted the role women by women in the agricultural production and economy.<ref name="Razavi1995p4">{{cite report |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |year=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper Series |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |page=4 |access-date=22 November 2013 |hdl=10419/148819 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055921/http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Reeves and Baden (2000) point out that the WID approach stresses the need for women to play a greater role in the development process. According to this perspective, women's active involvement in policymaking will lead to more successful policies overall.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reeves |first1=Hazel |last2=Baden |first2=Sally |title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions (Report 55) |url=https://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re55.pdf |publisher=University of Sussex - Institute of Development Studies |access-date=18 September 2019 |archive-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200929195546/https://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/reports/re55.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Thus, a dominant strand of thinking within WID sought to link women's issues with development, highlighting how such issues acted as impediments to economic growth; this “relevance” approach stemmed from the experience of WID advocates which illustrated that it was more effective if demands of equity and social justice for women were strategically linked to mainstream development concerns, in an attempt to have WID policy goals taken up by development agencies.<ref name="Razavi1995p6">{{cite report |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |year=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper Series |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |page=6 |access-date=22 November 2013 |hdl=10419/148819 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055921/http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Women in Development approach was the first contemporary movement to specifically integrate women in the broader development agenda and acted as the precursor to later movements such as the Women and Development (WAD), and ultimately, the Gender and Development approach, departing from some of the criticized aspects imputed to the WID.

'''Criticism'''

The WID movement faced a number of criticisms; such an approach had in some cases the unwanted consequence of depicting women as a unit whose claims are conditional on its productive value, associating increased female status with the value of cash income in women's lives.<ref name="Razavi1995pi">{{cite report |last1=Razavi |first1=Shahrashoub |last2=Miller |first2=Carol |year=1995 |title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse |url=http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |journal=United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper Series |publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |volume=1 |page=i |access-date=22 November 2013 |hdl=10419/148819 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304055921/http://unrisd.org/unrisd/website/document.nsf/ab82a6805797760f80256b4f005da1ab/d9c3fca78d3db32e80256b67005b6ab5/$FILE/opb1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The WID view and similar classifications based on Western feminism, applied a general definition to the status, experiences and contributions of women and the solutions for women in Third World countries.<ref>{{cite book|title=Producing women and progress in Zimbabwe : narratives of identity and work from the 1980s|author=Sylvester, Christine|date=2000|publisher=Heinemann|isbn=978-0325000701|___location=Portsmouth, NH|oclc=41445662}}</ref> Furthermore, the WID, although it advocated for greater [[gender equality]], did not tackle the unequal gender relations and roles at the basis of women's exclusion and gender subordination rather than addressing the stereotyped expectations entertained by men.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf |title=Women's role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints |last1=Bradshaw |first1=Sarah |date=May 2013 |website=UNSDSN |access-date=22 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003717/http://unsdsn.org/files/2013/05/130520-Women-Economic-Development-Paper-for-HLP.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Moreover, the underlying assumption behind the call for the integration of the [[Third World]] women with their national economy was that women were not already participating in development, thus downplaying women's roles in household production and informal economic and political activities.<ref name="Koczberski1998">{{cite journal |last=Koczberski |first=Sarah |year=1998 |title=Women In Development: A Critical Analysis |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=399 |doi=10.1080/01436599814316|hdl=20.500.11937/14444 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The WID was also criticized for its views on the fact that women's status will improve by moving into “productive employment”, implying that the move to the “modern sector” need to be made from the “traditional” sector to achieve self-advancement, further implying that “traditional” work roles often occupied by women in the developing world were inhibiting to self-development.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Koczberski |first=Sarah |year=1998 |title=Women In Development: A Critical Analysis |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=3 |page=400 |doi=10.1080/01436599814316|hdl=20.500.11937/14444 |url=https://espace.curtin.edu.au/bitstream/20.500.11937/14444/2/19189_downloaded_stream_281.pdf |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===Women and development (WAD)===

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* Kabeer, Naila (2003). Gender mainstreaming in poverty eradication and the Millennium development goals a handbook for policy-makers and other stakeholders. London: Commonwealth secretariat. {{ISBN|0-85092-752-8}}.

* {{cite journal |last1=Koczberski |first1=Gina |title=Women in development: A critical analysis |journal=Third World Quarterly |date=1 September 1998 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=395–410 |doi=10.1080/01436599814316 |hdl=20.500.11937/14444 |hdl-access=free }}

*{{cite book |title=A guide to gender-analysis frameworks |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4JBHy_ObO2UC |first1=Candida |last1=March |first2=Inés A. |last2=Smyth |first3=Maitrayee |last3=Mukhopadhyay |publisher=Oxfam |year=1999 |isbn=0-85598-403-1 }}

* McRobbie, Angela (2009). The Aftermath of Feminism: Gender, Culture and Social Change. London: Sage. {{ISBN|0761970622}}. Retrieved 25 November 2013.

* Merchant, Carolyn (1980). The death of nature: women, ecology, and the scientific revolution: a feminist reappraisal of the scientific revolution(First edition. ed.). San Francisco: Harper & Row.{{ISBN|0062505718}}.

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* Rankin, Katharine N. (2001). "Governing Development: Neoliberalism, Microcredit, and Rational Economic Woman". Economy and Society (Fondation Maison des sciences de l'homme) 30: 20. Retrieved 2 November 2013.

* Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990. “WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice.” The Journal of Developing Areas. 24(4) 289-502

* Razavi, S. [http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BE6B5/search/7F6321E556FA0364C12579220031A129?OpenDocument ‘World Development Report 2012: Gender Equality and Development: An Opportunity Both Welcome and Missed (An Extended Commentary)’.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514231442/http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BE6B5/search/7F6321E556FA0364C12579220031A129?OpenDocument |date=2014-05-14 }} p.&nbsp;2.

* Razavi, Shahrashoub; Miller, Carol (1995)."From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse". United Nations Research Institute Occasional Paper series (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development) 1: 2. Retrieved 22 November 2013.

* Reeves, Hazel (2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions. Brighton. p.&nbsp;8. {{ISBN|1 85864 381 3}}.

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*{{cite journal |last1=Schech |first1=S. |last2=Mustafa |first2=M. |title=The Politics of Gender Mainstreaming Poverty Reduction: An Indonesian Case Study |journal=Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society |date=1 March 2010 |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=111–135 |doi=10.1093/sp/jxp025 }}

* Sen, Amartya (2001). Development as freedom(1. publ. as an Oxford Univ. Press paperback ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press.{{ISBN|0192893300}}.

*{{cite journal |ref={{harvid|Shifting views...}} |url=http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/bpaper/boxseng.htm |title=Shifting views of women and development |journal=Africa Recovery |publisher=United Nations |volume=11 |date=April 1998 |accessdate=2011-06-15 }}

* Singh, Shweta. (2007). Deconstructing Gender and development for Identities of Women, International Journal of Social Welfare, Issue 16, pages. 100–109.

* True, J (2012). Feminist Strategies in Global Governance: Gender Mainstreaming. New York: Routledge. p.&nbsp;37.

* UNICEF (2006). The state of the world's children 2007: women and children: the double dividend of gender equality. United Nations Children's Fund.

* UNU. The quality of life a study prepared for the World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER) of the United Nations University (Repr. ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1995. {{ISBN|9780198287971}}.

*{{cite book |last=Van Marle |first=Karin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zbvFLBTaZS0C&pg=PA125 |title=Sex, gender, becoming: post-apartheid reflections |publisher=PULP |year=2006 |isbn=0-9585097-5-1 }}

* "World Bank Gender Overview". World Bank. World Bank. 3 May 2013. Retrieved 5 November 2013.

* WDB about page". Women's Development Business. WDB. 2013. Retrieved 28 November 2013.