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While the value of {{mvar|α}} can be determined from estimates of the constants that appear in any of its definitions, the theory of [[quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) provides a way to measure {{mvar|α}} directly using the [[quantum Hall effect]] or the [[anomalous magnetic moment]] of the [[electron]].<ref name=":0">
{{cite journal |last1=Fan |first1=X. |last2=Myers |first2=T. G. |last3=Sukra |first3=B. A. D. |last4=Gabrielse |first4=G. |date=2023-02-13 |title=Measurement of the Electron Magnetic Moment |url=https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.130.071801 |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=130 |issue=7 |pages=071801 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.130.071801|pmid=36867820 |arxiv=2209.13084
|bibcode=2023PhRvL.130g1801F }}</ref> Other methods include the A.C. Josephson effect and photon recoil in atom interferometry.<ref name=Yu2019>
{{cite journal
|last1=Yu |first1=C. |last2=Zhong |first2=W.
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|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]
|volume=327 |issue=4 |pages=1208–1222
|doi=10.1046/j.1365-8711.2001.04840.x |doi-access=free |arxiv=astro-ph/0012419
|bibcode=2001MNRAS.327.1208M |s2cid=14294586
}}</ref><ref>
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|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]
|volume=345 |issue=2 |pages=609–638
|doi=10.1046/j.1365-8711.2003.06970.x |doi-access=free
|arxiv=astro-ph/0306483 |bibcode=2003MNRAS.345..609M |s2cid=13182756
}}</ref>
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|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]
|volume=384 |issue=3 |pages=1053–1062
|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.12695.x |doi-access=free
|arxiv=astro-ph/0612407 |bibcode=2008MNRAS.384.1053M |s2cid=10476451
}}</ref>
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|journal=[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]
|volume=500 |pages=1–21
|doi=10.1093/mnras/staa3217 |doi-access=free |arxiv=2008.10619
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite journal
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