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'''Theoretical approach'''
WAD arose out of a shift in thinking about women's role in development, and concerns about the explanatory limitations of [[modernization theory]].<ref name="Rathgeber, Eva M 1990">Rathgeber, Eva M. 1990. “WID, WAD, GAD: Trends in Research and Practice.” The Journal of Developing Areas. 24(4) 289-502</ref> While previous thinking held that development was a vehicle to advance women, new ideas suggested that development was only made possible by the involvement of women, and rather than being simply passive recipients of [[development aid]], they should be actively involved in development projects.<ref name="choike.org"/> WAD took this thinking a step further and suggested that women have always been an integral part of development, and did not suddenly appear in the 1970s as a result of exogenous development efforts.<ref name="Rathgeber, Eva M 1990"/> The WAD approach suggests that there be women-only development projects that were theorized to remove women from the patriarchal hegemony that would exist if women participated in development alongside men in a patriarchal culture, though this concept has been heavily debated by theorists in the field.<ref name="Parpart, Jane L. 2000">{{cite book | last1 = Barriteau | first1 = Eudine | last2 = Connelly | first2 = Patricia | last3 = Parpart | first3 = Jane L | author-link1 = Eudine Barriteau | title = Theoretical perspectives on gender and development | publisher = International Development Research Centre (IDRC) | ___location = Ottawa | year = 2000 | isbn = 9780889369108 }}</ref> In this sense, WAD is differentiated from WID by way of the theoretical framework upon which it was built. Rather than focus specifically on women's relationship to development, WAD focuses on the relationship between patriarchy and capitalism. This theory seeks to understand women's issues from the perspectives of [[neo-Marxism]]
'''Practical approach'''
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'''Theoretical approach'''
The Gender and Development (GAD) approach focuses on the socially constructed<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bertrand|first=Tietcheu|title=Being Women and Men in Africa Today: Approaching Gender Roles in Changing African Societies|year=2006|journal=Student World}}</ref>
GAD departs from WID, which discussed women's subordination and lack of inclusion in discussions of international development without examining broader systems of gender relations.<ref>{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=3|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some practitioners working in the development field questioned focusing on women in isolation.<ref name="Razavi 1995 12">{{cite report|last=Razavi|first=Shahrashoub|author2=Carol Miller|title=From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse|date=1 February 1995|page=12|hdl=10419/148819|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
Unlike WID, the GAD approach is not concerned specifically with women, but with the way in which a society assigns roles, responsibilities and expectations to both women and men. GAD applies [[gender analysis]] to uncover the ways in which men and women work together, presenting results in neutral terms of economics and efficiency.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} In an attempt to create gender equality (denoting women having the same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere),<ref>Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 1998, p.7</ref> GAD policies aim to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected to fulfill household management tasks, home-based production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. In terms of children, they develop social constructions through observations at a younger age than most people think. Children tend to learn about the differences between male and female actions and objects of use in a specific culture of their environment through observation (Chung & Huang 2021<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Yi |last2=Huang |first2=Hsin-Hui |date=2021-12-10 |title=Cognitive-Based Interventions Break Gender Stereotypes in Kindergarten Children |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |volume=18 |issue=24 |pages=13052 |doi=10.3390/ijerph182413052 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=8700911 |pmid=34948661}}</ref>). Around three years old, children learn about stability of gender and demonstrate stereotyping similar to adults regarding toys, clothes, activities, games, colors, and even specific personality descriptions. (2021<ref name=":4" />). By five years of age, they begin to develop identity and to possess stereotyping of personal–social attributes (2021<ref name=":4" />). At that age of their life, children think that they are more similar to their same-gender peers and are likely to compare themselves with characteristics that fit the gender stereotype. After entering primary school, children’s gender stereotyping extends to more dimensions, such as career choices, sports, motives to learn subjects which has an impact on the cognition of individuals (2021).<ref name=":4" />
GAD has been largely utilized in debates regarding development but this trend is not seen in the actual practice of developmental agencies and plans for development.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|title=Gender and the Political Economy of Development|last=Rai|first=Shirin M.|publisher=Polity|year=2002|isbn=0-7456-1490-6|___location=Malden|pages=44–83|chapter=Gender and Development}}</ref> [[Caroline Moser]] claims WID persists due to the challenging nature of GAD, but [[Shirin M. Rai]] counters this claim noting that the real issue lies in the tendency to overlap WID and GAD in policy. Therefore, it would only be possible if development agencies fully adopted GAD language exclusively.<ref name=":5" /> Caroline Moser developed the [[Moser Gender Planning Framework]] for GAD-oriented development planning in the 1980s while working at the Development Planning Unit of the [[University of London]]. Working with Caren Levy, she expanded it into a methodology for gender policy and planning.{{sfn|March|Smyth|Mukhopadhyay|1999|pp = 55}}
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'''Criticism'''
GAD has been criticized for emphasizing the social differences between men and women while neglecting the bonds between them and also the potential for changes in roles. Another criticism is that GAD does not dig deeply enough into social relations and so may not explain how these relations can undermine programs directed at women. It also does not uncover the types of trade-offs that women are prepared to make for the sake of achieving their ideals of marriage or motherhood.{{sfn|Shifting views...}} Another criticism is that the GAD perspective is theoretically distinct from WID, but in practice, programs seem to have elements of both. Whilst many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remain focused on a WID approach.<ref name="Reeves 2000 33">{{cite book|last=Reeves|first=Hazel|title=Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions|year=2000|___location=Brighton|isbn=1-85864-381-3|page=33}}</ref> Specifically, the language of GAD has been incorporated into WID programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Andrea M.|date=2006-07-20|title=WID and GAD in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania: Reappraising Gender Planning Approaches in Theory and Practice|journal=Journal of Women, Politics & Policy|volume=28|issue=2|pages=57–83|doi=10.1300/J501v28n02_03|s2cid=144490955|issn=1554-477X}}</ref> There is a slippage in reality where gender mainstreaming is often based in a single normative perspective as synonymous to women.<ref>{{cite book|last=True|first=J|title=Feminist Strategies in Global Governance: Gender Mainstreaming|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|___location=New York|page=37}}</ref>
==Neoliberal approaches==
===Gender and neoliberal development institutions===
Neoliberalism consists of policies that will privatize public industry, deregulate any laws or policies that interfere with the free flow of the market and cut back on all social services. These policies were often introduced to many low-income countries through structural adjustment programs (SAPs) by the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, Development, and Globalization:Economics as if All People Mattered.|last1=Beneria|first1=Lourdes|last2=Berik|first2=Gunseli|last3=Floro|first3=Maria S|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-53748-3|___location=New York|pages=95}}</ref> Neoliberalism was cemented as the dominant global policy framework in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref name=":02"/> Among development institutions, gender issues have increasingly become part of economic development agendas, as the examples of the [[World Bank]] shows. Awareness by international organizations of the need to address gender issues evolved over the past decades. The World Bank, and regional development banks, donor agencies, and government ministries have provided many examples of instrumental arguments for gender equality, for instance by emphasizing the importance of women's education as a way of increasing productivity in the household and the market. Their concerns have often focused on women's contributions to economic growth rather than the importance of women's education as a means for empowering women and enhancing their capabilities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Benería |first1=Lourdes |last2=Günseli |first2=Berik |last3=Floro |first3=Maria S. |title=Gender, Development, and Globalization: Economics As If All People Mattered |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |edition=
Gender mainstreaming
An argument made on the functions behind institutional financial institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank are that they support capitalist ideals through their means of economic growth of countries globally and their participation in the global economy and capitalist systems. The roles of banks as institutions and the creation of new workers’ economy reflect neoliberal developing ideals is also present in the criticisms on neoliberal developing institutions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pradella |first1=Lucia |last2=Marois |first2=Thomas |title=Polarizing Development: Alternatives to Neoliberalism and the Crisis |date=2014 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-3470-7 }}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}</ref> Another critique made on the market and institutions is that it contributes to the creation of policies and aid with gender-related outcomes. An argument made on the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development is that it creates a neoliberal dominance that continues the construction and reconstruction of gender norms by homogenously category women rather than the gender disparities within its policies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shields |first1=Stuart |last2=Wallin |first2=Sara |title=The European Bank for Reconstruction and Development's Gender Action Plan and the Gendered Political Economy of Post-Communist Transition |journal=Globalizations |date=4 May 2015 |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=383–399 |doi=10.1080/14747731.2015.1016307 |bibcode=2015Glob...12..383S |s2cid=54179275 |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/85978/9/Shields%20%2526%20Wallin%20Globalisations%20Final%20Draft.pdf }}</ref>
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One example of a popular place for factories to relocate is to China. In China the main people who work in these factories are women, these women move from their home towns to cities far away for the factory jobs. The reasons these women move is to be able to make a wage to take care of not only themselves but their families as well. Oftentimes these women are expected to get these jobs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houseman |first1=Susan |title=Outsourcing, offshoring and productivity measurement in United States manufacturing |journal=International Labour Review |date=March 2007 |volume=A146 |issue=1–2 |pages=61–80 |doi=10.1111/j.1564-913X.2007.00005.x |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Another example of a country the garment industry outsources work to is Bangladesh, which has one of the lowest costs of labor compared to other third world countries (see the ILO data provided in figure 1).<ref>{{cite web |title=Wages and Working Hours in the Textiles, Clothing, Leather and Footwear Industries |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_dialogue/@sector/documents/publication/wcms_300463.pdf |website=International Labour Organization |publisher=International Labour Office |access-date=November 15, 2019}}</ref>
[[File:ILO Graph of third world countries wages.png|thumb|Figure 1]]
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Women have been identified by some development institutions as a key to successful development, for example through financial inclusion. Microcredit is giving small loans to people in poverty without collateral. This was first started by [[Muhammad Yunus]], who formed the Grameen Bank in Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.microworld.org/en/about-microworld/about-microcredit|title=Story of the microcredit|website=www.microworld.org|access-date=2018-03-01}}</ref> Studies have showed that women are more likely to repay their debt than men, and the Grameen Bank focuses on aiding women.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Economics of Microfinance|last=Armendáriz|first=Beatriz|publisher=MIT Press|year=2010|isbn=9780262014106|___location=Cambridge|pages=14}}</ref> This financial opportunity allows women to start their own businesses for a steady income.<ref>{{cite journal|last=H|first=Scott|date=2006|title=Book Review: Banker to the Poor: Micro-Lending and the Battle against World Poverty|journal=Review of Radical Political Economics|volume=38|issue=2|pages=280–283|doi=10.1177/0486613405285433|s2cid=153331749}}</ref> Women have been the focus of microcredit for their subsequent increased status as well as the overall well-being of the home being improved when given to women rather than men.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Household Decisions, Gender, and Development: A Synthesis of Recent Research|last=Sharma|first=Manohar|publisher=International Food Policy Research Institute|year=2003|isbn=0-89629-717-9|editor-last=Quisumbing|editor-first=Agnes R.|___location=Washington DC|pages=195–199|chapter=Microfinance}}</ref>
There were numerous case studies done in Tanzania about the correlation of the role of [[Microfinance in Tanzania|SACCoS]] (savings and credit cooperative organization) and the economic development of the country. The research showed that the microfinance policies were not being carried out in the most efficient ways due to exploitation.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Brennan|first=James R.|date=November 2006|journal=The Journal of African History|volume=47|issue=3|pages=389–413|doi=10.1017/S0021853706001794|issn=1469-5138|title=Blood Enemies: Exploitation and Urban Citizenship in the Nationalist Political Thought of Tanzania, 1958–75|s2cid=144117250|url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/4155/1/BloodEnemies.pdf}}</ref>
While there are such cases in which women were able to lift themselves out of poverty, there are also cases in which women fell into a [[poverty trap]] as they were unable to repay their loans.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/11/01/500093608/you-asked-we-answer-can-tiny-loans-lift-women-out-of-poverty|title=You Asked, We Answer: Can Microloans Lift Women Out Of Poverty?|work=NPR.org|access-date=2018-03-01}}</ref> It is even said that microcredit is actually an "anti-developmental" approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Bateman, Chang|first=Milford, Ha-Joon|date=2012|title=Microfinance and the Illusion of Development: From Hubris to Nemesis in Thirty Years|url=http://wer.worldeconomicsassociation.org/files/WER-Vol1-No1-Article2-Bateman-and-Chang-v2.pdf|journal=World Economic Review|volume=1|pages=13–36}}</ref> There is little evidence of significant development for these women within the 30 years that the microfinance has been around.<ref>{{cite book|title=Gender, development, and globalization: economics as if all people mattered|last=Benería|first=Lourdes|publisher=New York ; London : Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group|year=2016|isbn=9780415537483|pages=106}}</ref> In South Africa, unemployment is high due to the introduction of microfinance, more so than it was under apartheid.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Banerjee|first1=Abhijit|last2=Galiani|first2=Sebastian|last3=Levinsohn|first3=Jim|last4=McLaren|first4=Zoë|last5=Woolard|first5=Ingrid|title=Why Has Unemployment Risen in the New South Africa |journal=NBER Working Paper No. 13167 |date=June 2007 |doi=10.3386/w13167|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Some arguments that microcredit is not effective insist that the structure of the economy, with large informal and agriculture sectors, do not provide a system in which borrowers can be successful. In Nigeria, where the informal economy is approximately 45–60% of economy, women working within it could not attain access to microcredit because of the high demand for loans triggered by high unemployment rates in the formal sector. This study found Nigerian woman are forced into “the hustle” and enhanced risk of the informal economy, which is unpredictable and contributes to women's inability to repay the loans.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Madichie|first1=Nnamdi O.|last2=Nkamnebe|first2=Anayo D.|date=2010-06-15|title=Micro-credit for microenterprises?|journal=Gender in Management|volume=25|issue=4|pages=301–319|doi=10.1108/17542411011048173|issn=1754-2413}}</ref> Another example from a study conducted in Arampur, Bangladesh, found that microcredit programs within the agrarian community do not effectively help the borrower pay their loan because the terms of the loan are not compatible with farm work. If was found that MFIs force borrowers to repay before the harvesting season starts and in some cases endure the struggles of sharecropping work that is funded by the loan.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Paprocki|first=Kasia|date=August 2016|title='Selling Our Own Skin:' Social dispossession through microcredit in rural Bangladesh|journal=Geoforum|volume=74|pages=29–38|doi=10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.05.008|issn=0016-7185}}</ref>
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===Gender, financial crises, and neoliberal economic policy===
The [[
There are different views among feminists on whether neoliberal economic policies have more positive or negative impacts on women. In the post-war era, feminist scholars such as Elizabeth Wilson<ref name="Wilson1977">{{cite book |author=Elizabeth Wilson |title= Women and the Welfare State
Therefore, some scholars in the field argue that [[feminism]], especially during its [[second-wave feminism|second wave]], has contributed key ideas to Neoliberalism that, according to these authors, creates new forms of inequality and exploitation.<ref name="Fraser2012">{{cite journal |last=Fraser |first=Nancy |year=2012 |title= Feminism, Capitalism, and the Cunning of History |url= http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/72/50/55/PDF/FMSH-WP-2012-17_Fraser1.pdf |journal=Working Paper |publisher=Fondation Maison des sciences de l'homme
As a reaction to the phenomenon that some forms of feminism are increasingly interwoven with capitalism, many suggestions on how to name these movements have emerged in the feminist literature. Examples are ‘free market feminism’ <ref name="Eisenstein2009">{{cite book |last=Eisenstein |first=Hester |year=2009 |title= Feminism Seduced: How Global Elites Use Women's Labor and Ideas to Exploit the World |url= http://www.barnesandnoble.com/w/feminism-seduced-hester-eisenstein/1101405471?ean=9781594516597&itm=1&usri=9781594516597 |___location=Boulder |publisher= Paradigm Publishers |isbn= 978-1594516597 |access-date=25 November 2013 }}</ref> or even ‘faux-feminism’.<ref name="McRobbie2009">{{cite book |last=McRobbie |first=Angela |year=2009 |title= The Aftermath of Feminism: Gender, Culture and Social Change |url= http://product.half.ebay.com/The-Aftermath-of-Feminism-Gender-Culture-and-Social-Change-by-Angela-McRobbie-2008-Paperback/2879527&cpid=1169202753 |___location=London |publisher= Sage |isbn= 978-0761970620 |access-date=25 November 2013 }}</ref>
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===Smart economics===
'''Theoretical approaches'''
Advocated chiefly by the [[World Bank]], smart economics is an approach to define gender equality as an integral part of economic development and it aims to spur development through investing more efficiently in women and girls. It stresses that the gap between men and women in [[human capital]], economic opportunities, and voice/agency is a chief obstacle in achieving more efficient development. As an approach, it is a direct descendant of the efficiency approach taken by WID which “rationalizes ‘investing’ in women and girls for more effective development outcomes.”<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)">{{cite journal|last=Chant|first=Sylvia|author2=Sweetman, Caroline|title=Fixing women or fixing the world? 'Smart economics', efficiency approaches, and gender equality in development| journal=Gender & Development| date=November 2012|volume=20|issue=3|pages=517–529|doi=10.1080/13552074.2012.731812|s2cid=154921144}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Chant|first=S.|title=The disappearing of 'smart economics'? The World Development Report 2012 on Gender Equality: Some concerns about the preparatory process and the prospects for paradigm change|journal=Global Social Policy|date=16 August 2012|volume=12|issue=2|pages=198–218|doi=10.1177/1468018112443674|s2cid=145291907}}</ref>
The thinking behind smart economics dates back, at least, to the lost decade of the [[Structural adjustment|Structural Adjustment]] Policies (SAPs) in the 1980s.<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/> In 1995, World Bank issued its flagship publication on gender matters of the year Enhancing Women's Participation in Economic Development (World Bank 1995). This report marked a critical foundation to the naissance of Smart Economics; in a chapter entitled ‘The Pay-offs to Investing in Women,’ the Bank proclaimed that investing in women “speeds economic development by raising productivity and promoting the more efficient use of resources; it produces significant social returns, improving child survival and reducing fertility, and it has considerable intergenerational pay-offs.” <ref>{{cite report|last=World Bank|title=Enhancing Women's Participation in Economic Development|year=1995|issue=Washington, DC: World Bank|page=22}}</ref>
Other [[international organizations]], particular [[UN]] families, have so far endorsed the approach of smart economics. Examining the relationship between child well-being and gender equality, for example, [[UNICEF]] also referred to the “Double Dividend of Gender Equality.”<ref>{{cite book|last=UNICEF|title=The state of the world's children 2007: women and children: the double dividend of gender equality.|url=https://archive.org/details/stateofworldschi0000unic|url-access=registration|year=2006|publisher=United Nations Children's Fund|isbn=9789280639988}}</ref>
'''Criticisms'''
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The World Bank's gender policy aims to eliminate poverty and enhance economic growth by addressing gender disparities and inequalities that hinders development. A critique{{by whom|date=May 2021}} on the World Bank's gender policy is it being ‘gender-blind’ and not properly addressing gender inequity.<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Citizen's Guide to Gender and the World Bank |journal=Women's International Network News |volume=23 |issue=1 |date=Winter 1997 |page=8 }}{{unreliable source?|date=May 2021}}</ref> Rather a critique made is that the World Bank's gender policy utilizes gender equality as an ends means rather than analyzing root causes for economic disparities and gender equity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mahon |first1=Rianne |title=Introduction: The World Bank's new approach to gender equality? |journal=Global Social Policy |date=August 2012 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=173–174 |doi=10.1177/1468018112443673 |s2cid=155262829 }}</ref>
Smart economics’ subordination of women under the justification of development invited fierce criticisms. Chant expresses her grave concern that “Smart economics is concerned with building women’s capacities in the interests of development rather than promoting women’s rights for their own sake.”<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/>
A wide range of scholars and practitioners has criticized that smart economics rather endorse the current status-quo of gender inequality and keep silence for the demand of institutional reform. Its approach “[d]oes not involves public action to transform the laws, policies, and practices which constrain personal and group agency.”<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/>
Sylvia Chant (2008) discredited its approach as ‘feminisation of responsibility and/or obligation’ where the smart economics intends to spur growth simply by demanding more from women in terms of time, labour, energy, and other resources.<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/>
Chant is concerned that “An efficiency-driven focus on young women and girls as smart economics leaves this critical part of the global population out.”<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/>
Chant emphasize that “The smart economics approach represents, at best, pragmatism in a time of economic restructuring and [[austerity]].”<ref name="Chant and Sweetman (2012)"/>
==Alternative Approaches==
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===Marxism and Neo-Marxism===
The structuralist debate was first triggered by [[Marxist]] and [[socialist feminist]]s. Marxism, particularly through alternative models of [[state socialist]] development practiced in [[China]] and [[Cuba]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Huang|first=Philip C.C.|date=2012-09-17|title=Profit-Making State Firms and China's Development Experience|journal=Modern China|volume=38|issue=6|pages=591–629|doi=10.1177/0097700412455839|s2cid=153846930|issn=0097-7004}}</ref> challenged the dominant liberal approach over time. [[Neo-Marxist]] proponents focused on the role of the [[post-colonial]] state in development in general and also on localized class struggles.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pearce|first=Samir Amin. Transl. by Brian |title=Unequal development : an essay on the social formations of peripheral capitalism|year=1976|publisher=Harvester Pr.|___location=Hassocks|isbn=978-0901759467 |edition=al-Ṭabʻah 4.|url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/unequaldevelopme0000amin}}</ref> [[Marxist feminist]]s advanced these criticisms towards liberal approaches and made significant contribution to the contemporary debate.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mies |first1=Maria |last2=Bennholdt-Thomsen |first2=Veronika |last3=Werlhof |first3=Claudia von |date=1988 |title=Women: the last colony |publisher=Zed Books |___location=London |isbn=978-0862324551 |url=https://archive.org/details/womenlastcolony00mies }}</ref>
===Dependency theory===
Dependency theorists opposed that liberal development models, including the attempt to incorporate women into the existing global capitalism, was, in fact, nothing more than the "development of [[underdevelopment]]."<ref>{{cite book|last=Frank |first=Andre Gunder|title=Capitalism and underdevelopment in Latin America : historical studies of Chile and Brazil |url=https://archive.org/details/capitalismunderd00fran|url-access=registration |year=1969|publisher=Monthly Review P. |___location=New York |isbn=978-0853450931|edition=
In the 1980s, there also emerged "a sustained questioning by [[post-structuralist]] critics of the development paradigm as a narrative of progress and as an achievable enterprise."<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghosh |first=Jayati |title=The Women, Gender and Development Reader |publisher=Zed Books |year=2011 |isbn=9781780321387 |editor-last=Visvanathan |editor-first=Nalini |edition=2nd |___location=London |page=29 |chapter=Financial crises and the impact on woman: a historical note |editor-last2=Duggan |editor-first2=Lynn |editor-last3=Wiegersma |editor-first3=Nan |editor-last4=Nisonoff |editor-first4=Laurie}}</ref>
===Basic Needs Approach, Capability Approach, and Ecofeminism===
Within the liberal paradigm of women and development, various criticism have emerged. The [[Basic Needs]] (BN) approach began to pose questions to the focus on growth and income as indicators of development. It was heavily influenced by [[Amartya Sen|Sen]] and Nussbaum's [[capability approach]], which was more gender sensitive than BN and focused on expanding human freedom.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sen|first=Amartya|title=Development as freedom|year=2001|publisher=Oxford Univ. Press|___location=Oxford [u.a.]|isbn=978-0192893307|edition=1st publ. as an Oxford Univ. Press paperback|url=https://archive.org/details/developmentasfre00sena}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor-first=Martha|editor-last=Nussbaum|title=The quality of life a study prepared for the World Institute for Development Economics Research (WIDER) of the United Nations University|year=1995|publisher=Clarendon Press|___location=Oxford|isbn=9780198287971|edition=
==References==
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