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Cultural traits alter the social and physical environments under which genetic selection operates. For example, the cultural adoptions of agriculture and dairying have, in humans, caused genetic selection for the traits to digest starch and [[lactose]], respectively.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Simoons | first1 = F | year = 1969 | title = Primary adult lactose intolerance and the milking habit: A problem in biologic and cultural interrelations: I. Review of the medical research | journal = The American Journal of Digestive Diseases | volume = 14 | issue = 12| pages = 819–836 | doi=10.1007/bf02233204 | pmid=4902756| s2cid = 22597839 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Simoons | first1 = F | year = 1970 | title = Primary adult lactose intolerance and the milking habit: A problem in biologic and cultural interrelations: II. A culture historical hypothesis | journal = The American Journal of Digestive Diseases | volume = 15 | issue = 8| pages = 695–710 | doi=10.1007/bf02235991| pmid = 5468838 | s2cid = 2140863 }}</ref><ref>Cavalli-Sforza, L., P. Menozzi and A. Piazza. 1994. ''The history and geography of human genes'' Princeton: Princeton University Press</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Holden | first1 = C. | last2 = Mace | first2 = R. | year = 1997 | title = Phylogenetic analysis of the evolution of lactose digestion in adults | journal = Human Biology | volume = 69 | issue = 5| pages = 605–628 | pmid = 9299882 }}</ref><ref>Durham, W. 1991. '' Coevolution: Genes, culture and human diversity''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Chapter 5</ref><ref>Perry, G., N. Dominy, K. Claw, A. Lee, H>{{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=George H |last2=Dominy |first2=Nathaniel J |last3=Claw |first3=Katrina G |last4=Lee |first4=Arthur S |last5=Fiegler |first5=Heike |last6=Redon |first6=Richard |last7=Werner |first7=John |last8=Villanea |first8=Fernando A |last9=Mountain |first9=Joanna L |last10=Misra |first10=Rajeev |last11=Carter |first11=Nigel P |last12=Lee |first12=Charles |last13=Stone |first13=Anne C |title=Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation |journal=Nature Genetics |date=October 2007 |volume=39 |issue=10 |pages=1256–1260 |doi=10.1038/ng2123 |pmid=17828263 |pmc=2377015 }}</ref> As another example, it is likely that once culture became adaptive, genetic selection caused a refinement of the cognitive architecture that stores and transmits cultural information. This refinement may have further influenced the way culture is stored and the biases that govern its transmission.
DIT also predicts that, under certain situations, cultural evolution may select for traits that are genetically maladaptive. An example of this is the [[demographic transition]], which describes the fall of birth rates within industrialized societies. Dual inheritance theorists hypothesize that the demographic transition may be a result of a prestige bias, where individuals that forgo reproduction to gain more influence in industrial societies are more likely to be chosen as cultural models.
==View of culture==
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===Cultural drift===
[[Cultural drift]] is a process roughly analogous to [[genetic drift]] in evolutionary biology.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Koerper | first1 = H. | last2 = Stickel | first2 = E. | year = 1980 | title = Cultural Drift: A Primary Process of Culture Change | journal = Journal of Anthropological Research | volume = 36 | issue = 4| pages = 463–469 | doi = 10.1086/jar.36.4.3629615 | s2cid = 163932368 }}</ref><ref name="CavalliSfornza">Cavalli-Sfornza, L. and M. Feldman. 1981. ''Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach''. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.{{pn|date=July 2024}}</ref><ref name="artsci.wustl">{{cite journal |last1=Bentley |first1=R. Alexander |last2=Hahn |first2=Matthew W. |last3=Shennan |first3=Stephen J. |title=Random drift and culture change |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |date=22 July 2004 |volume=271 |issue=1547 |pages=1443–1450 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2004.2746 |pmid=15306315 |pmc=1691747 }}</ref> In cultural drift, the frequency of cultural traits in a population may be subject to random fluctuations due to chance variations in which traits are observed and transmitted (sometimes called "sampling error").<ref name="duke">{{cite journal | last1 = Hahn | first1 = M.W. | last2 = Bentley | first2 = R. A. | year = 2003 | title = Drift as a mechanism for cultural change: An example from baby names | url = http://www.duke.edu/~mwh3/BabyNames.pdf | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B | volume = 270 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S120–S123 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2003.0045 | pmid=12952655 | pmc=1698036}}</ref> These fluctuations might cause cultural variants to disappear from a population. This effect should be especially strong in small populations.
===Guided variation===
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===Biased transmission===
Understanding the different ways that culture traits can be transmitted between individuals has been an important part of DIT research since the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Feldman | first1 = M. | author-link2 = Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza | last2 = Cavalli-Sforza | first2 = L. | year = 1976 | title = Cultural and biological evolutionary processes, selection for a trait under complex transmission | journal = Theoretical Population Biology | volume = 9 | issue = 2| pages = 238–259 | doi=10.1016/0040-5809(76)90047-2 | pmid=1273802| bibcode = 1976TPBio...9..238F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Feldman | first1 = M | last2 = Cavalli-Sfornza | first2 = L. | year = 1977 | title = The evolution of continuous variation: II, complex transmission and assortive mating | journal = Theoretical Population Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 2| pages = 161–181 | doi=10.1016/0040-5809(77)90024-7| pmid = 867286 | bibcode = 1977TPBio..11..161F }}</ref> Transmission biases occur when some cultural variants are favored over others during the process of cultural transmission.
====Content bias====
Content biases result from situations where some aspect of a cultural variant's content makes them more likely to be adopted.<ref name="Henrich">{{cite book |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568308.013.0038 |chapter=Dual-inheritance theory: The evolution of human cultural capacities and cultural evolution |title=Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology |date=2012 |last1=Henrich |first1=Joseph |last2=McElreath |first2=Richard |pages=555–570 |isbn=978-0-19-856830-8 }}</ref> Content biases can result from genetic preferences, preferences determined by existing cultural traits, or a combination of the two. For example, food preferences can result from genetic preferences for sugary or fatty foods and socially-learned eating practices and taboos.<ref name="Henrich" /> Content biases are sometimes called "direct biases."
====Context bias====
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{{details|topic=cultural group selection|Cultural group selection}}
Although [[group selection]] is commonly thought to be nonexistent or unimportant in genetic evolution,<ref>[[George C. Williams (biologist)|Williams, G.C.]] 1972. ''[[Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of Some Current Evolutionary Thought]]''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-02357-3}}</ref><ref>[[George C. Williams (biologist)|Williams, G.C.]] 1986. ''Evolution Through Group Selection.'' Blackwell. {{ISBN|0-632-01541-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Maynard Smith | first1 = J. | author-link = John Maynard Smith | year = 1964 | title = Group selection and kin selection | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume = 201 | issue = 4924| pages = 1145–1147 | doi=10.1038/2011145a0 | bibcode=1964Natur.201.1145S| s2cid = 4177102 }}</ref> DIT predicts that, due to the nature of cultural inheritance, it may be an important force in cultural evolution. Group selection occurs in cultural evolution because conformist biases make it difficult for novel cultural traits to spread through a population (see above section on transmission biases). Conformist bias also helps maintain variation between groups. These two properties, rare in genetic transmission, are necessary for group selection to operate.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Uyenoyama | first1 = M. | last2 = Feldman | first2 = M. W. | year = 1980 | title = Theories of kin and group selection: a population genetics perspective | journal = Theoretical Population Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 3| pages = 380–414 | doi=10.1016/0040-5809(80)90033-7| pmid = 7434256 | bibcode = 1980TPBio..17..380U }}</ref> Based on an earlier model by Cavalli-Sforza and Feldman,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cavalli-Sforza | first1 = L. L. | last2 = Feldman | first2 = M. W. | year = 1973 | title = Models for cultural inheritance. I. Group mean and within group variation | journal = Theoretical Population Biology | volume = 4 | issue = 1| pages = 42–44 | doi=10.1016/0040-5809(73)90005-1| pmid = 4726009 | bibcode = 1973TPBio...4...42C }}</ref> Boyd and Richerson show that conformist biases are almost inevitable when traits spread through social learning,
==Historical development==
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The second 1981 book was [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza|Cavalli-Sforza]] and Feldman's ''Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach''.<ref name="CavalliSfornza" /> Borrowing heavily from [[population genetics]] and [[epidemiology]], this book built a mathematical theory concerning the spread of cultural traits. It describes the evolutionary implications of [[vertical transmission]], passing cultural traits from parents to offspring; oblique transmission, passing cultural traits from any member of an older generation to a younger generation; and [[horizontal transmission]], passing traits between members of the same population.
The next significant DIT publication was [[Robert Boyd (anthropologist)|Robert Boyd]] and [[Peter Richerson]]'s 1985 ''Culture and the Evolutionary Process''.
==Current and future research==
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Economist [[Herbert Gintis]] disagrees with this critique, citing empirical work as well as more recent work using techniques from [[behavioral economics]].<ref>Herb Gintis Amazon.com review: https://www.amazon.com/review/product/0198508840/</ref> These behavioral economic techniques have been adapted to test predictions of cultural evolutionary models in laboratory settings<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McElreath |first1=Richard |last2=Lubell |first2=Mark |last3=Richerson |first3=Peter J. |last4=Waring |first4=Timothy M. |last5=Baum |first5=William |last6=Edsten |first6=Edward |last7=Efferson |first7=Charles |last8=Paciotti |first8=Brian |title=Applying evolutionary models to the laboratory study of social learning |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |date=November 2005 |volume=26 |issue=6 |pages=483–508 |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.04.003 |bibcode=2005EHumB..26..483M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Efferson |first1=C |last2=Lalive |first2=R |last3=Richerson |first3=P |last4=Mcelreath |first4=R |last5=Lubell |first5=M |title=Conformists and mavericks: the empirics of frequency-dependent cultural transmission |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |date=January 2008 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=56–64 |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.08.003 |bibcode=2008EHumB..29...56E |s2cid=2107499 |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/3943/10/ConformistsMavericksV.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baum |first1=William M. |last2=Richerson |first2=Peter J. |last3=Efferson |first3=Charles M. |last4=Paciotti |first4=Brian M. |title=Cultural evolution in laboratory microsocieties including traditions of rule giving and rule following |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |date=September 2004 |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=305–326 |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.05.003 |bibcode=2004EHumB..25..305B }}</ref> as well as studying differences in cooperation in fifteen small-scale societies in the field.<ref name="Henrich_a">Henrich, J., R. Boyd, S. Bowles, C. Camerer, E. Fehr, H. Gintis (Eds). 2004. ''Foundations of Human Sociality: Economic Experiments and Ethnographic Evidence from Fifteen Small-Scale Societies'' Oxford: Oxford University Press.{{pn|date=July 2024}}</ref>
Since one of the goals of DIT is to explain the distribution of human cultural traits, [[ethnography|ethnographic]] and [[ethnology|ethnologic]] techniques may also be useful for testing hypothesis stemming from DIT. Although findings from traditional ethnologic studies have been used to buttress DIT arguments,<ref>Cavalli-Sfornza, L. L. and M. Feldman. 1981. ''Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach.'' Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.{{pn|date=July 2024}}</ref>
Herb Gintis has named DIT one of the two major conceptual theories with potential for unifying the behavioral sciences, including economics, biology, anthropology, sociology, psychology and political science. Because it addresses both the genetic and cultural components of human inheritance, Gintis sees DIT models as providing the best explanations for the ultimate cause of human behavior and the best paradigm for integrating those disciplines with evolutionary theory.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gintis |first1=Herbert |title=A framework for the unification of the behavioral sciences |journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences |date=February 2007 |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1017/s0140525x07000581 |pmid=17475022 }}</ref> In a review of competing evolutionary perspectives on human behavior, Laland and Brown see DIT as the best candidate for uniting the other evolutionary perspectives under one theoretical umbrella.<ref name="Laland_a">Laland, K. N. and G. R. Brown. 2002. ''Sense & Nonsense: Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behavior.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 287-319.</ref>
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*Lumsden, C. J. and E. O. Wilson. 1981. ''Genes, Mind, and Culture: The Coevolutionary Process.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
*[[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza|Cavalli-Sforza, L. L.]] and M. Feldman. 1981. ''Cultural Transmission and Evolution: A Quantitative Approach.'' Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
*
*Durham, W. H. 1991. ''Coevolution: Genes, Culture and Human Diversity''. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-1537-8}}
*Tomasello, M. 1999. ''The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cambridge University Press.
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