Content deleted Content added
GreenC bot (talk | contribs) Move 2 urls. Wayback Medic 2.5 per WP:URLREQ#ieee.org |
|||
Line 314:
==Microprocessor computers==
{{Main|History of computing hardware (1960s–present)#Fourth generation}}
The "fourth-generation" of digital electronic computers used [[microprocessor]]s as the basis of their logic. The microprocessor has origins in the [[MOS integrated circuit]] (MOS IC) chip.<ref name="ieee">{{cite journal |last1=Shirriff |first1=Ken |title=The Surprising Story of the First Microprocessors |journal=[[IEEE Spectrum]] |volume=53 |issue=9 |pages=48–54 |date=30 August 2016 |publisher=[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org
The subject of exactly which device was the first microprocessor is contentious, partly due to lack of agreement on the exact definition of the term "microprocessor". The earliest multi-chip microprocessors were the [[Four-Phase Systems]] AL-1 in 1969 and [[Garrett AiResearch]] [[MP944]] in 1970, developed with multiple MOS LSI chips.<ref name="ieee"/> The first single-chip microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]],{{sfn|Intel|1971}} developed on a single [[PMOS logic|PMOS]] LSI chip.<ref name="ieee"/> It was designed and realized by [[Marcian Hoff|Ted Hoff]], [[Federico Faggin]], [[Masatoshi Shima]] and [[Stanley Mazor]] at [[Intel]], and released in 1971.{{efn|The Intel 4004 (1971) die was 12 mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 2300 transistors; by comparison, the Pentium Pro was 306 mm<sup>2</sup>, composed of 5.5 million transistors.{{sfn|Patterson|Hennessy|1998|pp=27–39}}}} [[Tadashi Sasaki (engineer)|Tadashi Sasaki]] and [[Masatoshi Shima]] at [[Busicom]], a calculator manufacturer, had the initial insight that the CPU could be a single MOS LSI chip, supplied by Intel.<ref name= 4bitSlice>{{cite web |first=William |last=Aspray |date=May 25, 1994 |title=Oral-History: Tadashi Sasaki |url=https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Tadashi_Sasaki |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802075939/https://ethw.org/Oral-History:Tadashi_Sasaki |archive-date=2020-08-02 |url-status=live}} [[Tadashi Sasaki (engineer)|Sasaki]] credits the idea for a 4 bit-slice PMOS chip to a woman researcher's idea at Sharp Corporation, which was not accepted by the other members of the Sharp brainstorming group. A 40-million yen infusion from Busicom to Intel was made at Sasaki's behest, to exploit the 4 bit-slice PMOS chip.</ref>{{sfn|Intel|1971}}
Line 338:
CMOS circuits have allowed computing to become a [[commodity]] which is now ubiquitous, embedded in [[embedded system|many forms]], from greeting cards and [[Mobile phone|telephone]]s to [[Satellite communications#History|satellites]]. The [[thermal design power]] which is dissipated during operation has become as essential as computing speed of operation. In 2006 servers consumed 1.5% of the total energy budget of the U.S.<ref>{{cite report |date=2007 |title=Energystar report |page=4 |url=https://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |access-date=2013-08-18 |archive-date=2013-10-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022230644/http://www.energystar.gov/ia/partners/prod_development/downloads/EPA_Report_Exec_Summary_Final.pdf?f272-71fc |url-status=live }}</ref> The energy consumption of computer data centers was expected to double to 3% of world consumption by 2011. The [[System on a chip|SoC]] (system on a chip) has compressed even more of the [[integrated circuit]]ry into a single chip; SoCs are enabling phones and PCs to converge into single hand-held wireless [[mobile computing|mobile device]]s.<ref>{{cite web |first=Walt |last=Mossberg |date=9 July 2014 |url=https://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/ |title=How the PC is merging with the smartphone |access-date=2014-07-09 |url-status=live |archive-date=2014-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709183504/http://recode.net/2014/07/09/how-the-pc-is-merging-with-the-smartphone/}}</ref>
{{anchor|quantum computing}}[[Quantum computing]] is an emerging technology in the field of computing. ''MIT Technology Review'' reported 10 November 2017 that IBM has created a 50-[[qubit]] computer; currently its quantum state lasts 50 microseconds.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609451/ibm-raises-the-bar-with-a-50-qubit-quantum-computer/ |first=Will |last=Knight |work=MIT Technology Review |date=10 November 2017 |title=IBM Raises the Bar with a 50-Qubit Quantum Computer |access-date=2017-11-10 |url-status=live |archive-date=2017-11-19 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171119050702/https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609451/ibm-raises-the-bar-with-a-50-qubit-quantum-computer/}}</ref> Google researchers have been able to extend the 50 microsecond time limit, as reported 14 July 2021 in ''Nature'';<ref name=quantumErrorCorrection/> stability has been extended 100-fold by spreading a single logical qubit over chains of data qubits for [[quantum error correction]].<ref name=quantumErrorCorrection>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03588-y |doi-access=free |collaboration=Google Quantum AI |author=Julian Kelly |display-authors=etal |date=15 July 2021 |title=Exponential suppression of bit or phase errors with cyclic error correction |journal=Nature |volume=595 |issue=7867 |pages=383–387 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03588-y.pdf?pdf=button%20sticky}} Cited in {{cite web |author=Adrian Cho |date=14 July 2021 |title=Physicists move closer to defeating errors in quantum computation |magazine=Science |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/physicists-move-closer-defeating-errors-quantum-computation}}</ref> ''Physical Review X'' reported a technique for 'single-gate sensing as a viable readout method for spin qubits' (a singlet-triplet spin state in silicon) on 26 November 2018.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Single-Shot Single-Gate rf Spin Readout in Silicon |first1=P. |last1=Pakkiam |first2=A. V. |last2=Timofeev |first3=M. G. |last3=House |first4=M. R. |last4=Hogg |first5=T. |last5=Kobayashi |first6=M. |last6=Koch |first7=S. |last7=Rogge |first8=M. Y. |last8=Simmons |date=26 November 2018 |journal=Physical Review X |volume=8 |issue=4 |at=041032 |via=APS |doi=10.1103/PhysRevX.8.041032 |arxiv=1809.01802 |bibcode=2018PhRvX...8d1032P |s2cid=119363882}}</ref> A Google team has succeeded in operating their RF pulse modulator chip at 3 [[kelvin]]s, simplifying the cryogenics of their 72-qubit computer, which is set up to operate at 0.3 [[kelvin|K]]; but the readout circuitry and another driver remain to be brought into the cryogenics.<ref name=72qubits>{{cite web |first=Samuel K. |last=Moore |work=IEEE Spectrum |date=13 March 2019 |title=Google Builds Circuit to Solve One of Quantum Computing's Biggest Problems |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org
Computing hardware and its software have even become a metaphor for the operation of the universe.<ref>{{harvnb|Smolin|2001|pp=53–57}}. Pages 220–226 are annotated references and guide for further reading.</ref>
| |||