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[[File:IBM system 360-50 console - MfK Bern.jpg|thumb|IBM System/360 Model 50 operator's console and CPU; the operator's console is a [[computer terminal|terminal]] used by the operating system to communicate with the operator.]]
The first computers in the late 1940s and 1950s were directly programmed either with [[plugboard]]s or with [[machine code]] inputted on media such as [[punch card]]s, without [[programming language]]s or operating systems.{{sfn|Tanenbaum|Bos|2023|p=8}} After the introduction of the [[transistor]] in the mid-1950s, [[mainframe]]s began to be built. These still needed professional operators{{sfn|Tanenbaum|Bos|2023|p=8}} who manually do what a modern operating system would do, such as scheduling programs to run, but mainframes still had rudimentary operating systems such as [[Fortran Monitor System]] (FMS) and [[IBSYS]].{{sfn|Tanenbaum|Bos|2023|p=10}} In the 1960s, [[IBM]] introduced the first series of intercompatible computers ([[System/360]]). All of them ran the same operating system—[[OS/360]]—which consisted of millions of lines of [[assembly language]] that had thousands of [[Software bug|bug]]s. The OS/360 also was the first popular operating system to support [[multiprogramming]], such that the CPU could be put to use on one job while another was waiting on [[input/output]] (I/O). Holding multiple jobs in [[memory (computing)|memory]] necessitated memory partitioning and safeguards against one job accessing the memory allocated to a different one.{{sfn|Tanenbaum|Bos|2023|pp=11–12}}
Around the same time, [[teleprinter]]s began to be used as [[computer terminal|terminal]]s so multiple users could access the computer simultaneously. The operating system [[MULTICS]] was intended to allow hundreds of users to access a large computer. Despite its limited adoption, it can be considered the precursor to [[cloud computing]]. The [[UNIX]] operating system originated as a development of MULTICS for a single user.{{sfn|Tanenbaum|Bos|2023|pp=13–14}} Because UNIX's [[source code]] was available, it became the basis of other, incompatible operating systems, of which the most successful were [[AT&T]]'s [[System V]] and the [[University of California]]'s [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] (BSD).{{sfn|Tanenbaum|Bos|2023|pp=14–15}} To increase compatibility, the [[IEEE]] released the [[POSIX]] standard for operating system [[application programming interface]]s (APIs), which is supported by most UNIX systems. [[MINIX]] was a stripped-down version of UNIX, developed in 1987 for educational uses, that inspired the commercially available, [[free software]] [[Linux]]. Since 2008, MINIX is used in controllers of most [[Intel]] [[microchips]], while Linux is widespread in [[data center]]s and [[Android (operating system)|Android]] smartphones.{{sfn|Tanenbaum|Bos|2023|p=15}}
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