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{{In use|time=01:42, 23 September 2024 (UTC)}}{{Short description|Improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
 
'''Training and development''' involves improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Kraiger|first2=Kurt|date=January 2009|title=Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=60|issue=1|pages=451–474|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505|pmid=18976113|s2cid=45609735 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> [[Training]] may be viewed as related to immediate changes in [[organizational effectiveness]] via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While [[training]] and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology but have within the last two decades become closely associated with [[Human resource management|human resources management]], [[talent management]], human resources development, [[instructional design]], [[Human factors and ergonomics|human factors]], and knowledge management.<ref name=":1" />
'''Training and development''' involves improving [[Organizational effectiveness|the effectiveness of organizations]] and the individuals and teams within them.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Kraiger|first2=Kurt|date=January 2009|title=Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=60|issue=1|pages=451–474|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505|pmid=18976113|s2cid=45609735 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref> [[Training]] may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with [[Human resource management|human resources management]], [[talent management]], human resources development, [[instructional design]], [[Human factors and ergonomics|human factors]], and knowledge management.<ref name=":1" />
 
Skills training has taken on varying organizational forms across industrialized economies.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Thelen |first=Kathleen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I0afDJGPczwC |title=How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-54674-4 |language=en}}</ref> Germany has an elaborate [[Vocational education|vocational training]] system, whereas the United States and the United Kingdom are considered to generally have weak vocational training systems.<ref name=":8" />
 
==History==
Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the globeworld.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alagaraja|first1=Meera|last2=Dooley|first2=Larry M.|date=March 2003|title=Origins and Historical Influences on Human Resource Development: A Global Perspective|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1534484303251170|journal=Human Resource Development Review|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=82–96|doi=10.1177/1534484303251170|s2cid=143353567 |issn=1534-4843}}</ref> Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the [[Antebellum South]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phillips|first=Lisa|date=2013-03-08|title=David R. Roediger and Esch Elizabeth. The Production of Difference. Race and the Management of Labor in US History. Oxford University Press, Oxford [etc.]2012. x, 286 pp. Ill. £22.50.|journal=International Review of Social History|volume=58|issue=1|pages=129–131|doi=10.1017/s0020859013000059|s2cid=144977591 |issn=0020-8590|doi-access=free}}</ref> and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by [[Booker T. Washington]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Washington|first=Booker, T.|title=Up From Slavery}}</ref> Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the Journal of Applied Psychology, which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Bradford S.|last2=Tannenbaum|first2=Scott I.|last3=Ford|first3=J. Kevin|last4=Noe|first4=Raymond A.|last5=Kraiger|first5=Kurt|date=2017|title=100 years of training and development research: What we know and where we should go.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=305–323|doi=10.1037/apl0000142|pmid=28125262|issn=1939-1854|url=https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2306&context=articles|hdl=1813/74878|s2cid=26505012|hdl-access=free}}</ref> World War II influenced the focus of applied psychology research to be on the effectiveness of training programs, particularly in military contexts.
 
By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since the fieldit was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research,<ref name=":0" /> and new training methods were developed in this period, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=J P|date=January 1971|title=Personnel Training and Development|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=22|issue=1|pages=565–602|doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.003025|issn=0066-4308}}</ref> The scope of training and development also expanded to include [[Cross-cultural communication|cross-cultural]] training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new [[organization development]] literature to frame training programs.<ref name=":2" />
 
ITheThe 1980s marked a shift to focusfocused on how employees were receivingreceived and implementingimplemented training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Burke|first1=Michael J.|last2=Day|first2=Russell R.|date=1986|title=A cumulative study of the effectiveness of managerial training.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=232–245|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.71.2.232|issn=0021-9010}}</ref> The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 90s, with employees more frequently being influenced by the concept of "[[lifelong learning]]".<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Birdi|first1=Kamal|last2=Allan|first2=Catriona|last3=Warr|first3=Peter|date=1997|title=Correlates and perceived outcomes of 4 types of employee development activity.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=82|issue=6|pages=845–857|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.845|pmid=9638086|issn=0021-9010}}</ref> It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture was first conducted.<ref name=":3" />
 
The 21st century had brought more research in topics such as team-training;, forsuch exampleas cross-training, which emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=Michelle A. |last2=Sabella |first2=Mark J. |last3=Burke |first3=C. Shawn |last4=Zaccaro |first4=Stephen J. |date=2002 |title=The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness. |journal=Journal of Applied Psychology |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=3–13 |doi=10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.3 |issn=0021-9010 |pmid=11916213}}</ref>
 
==Training practice and methods==
Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and development.<ref name="Harrison">{{cite book|title=Learning and Development|author=Rosemary Harrison|date=2005|publisher=CIPD Publishing|isbn=9781843980506|pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Management|author1=Patrick J. Montana |author2=Bruce H. Charnov |name-list-style=amp |pages=225|chapter=Training and Development|publisher=Barron Educationally Series|date=2000|isbn=9780764112768}}</ref><ref name=IITD>{{cite book|title=Training and Development in Ireland|author1=Thomas N. Garavan |author2=Pat Costine |author3=Noreen Heraty |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cengage Learning EMEA|date=1995|pages=1|chapter=Training and Development: Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues|isbn=9781872853925}}</ref> Differing levels and types of development may be used depending on the roles of employees in an organisation.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peacock |first1=Melanie |title=Understanding Human Resources Management |last2=Steward |first2=Eileen B. |last3=Belcourt |first3=Monica |publisher=Alexis Hood |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-17-679806-2 |pages=185}}</ref>
 
The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers, and line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The clients of training and development are business planners, while the participants are those who actually undergo the processes. The facilitators are human resource management staff and the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the agendas and motivations of the others'.<ref name=":6">{{cite book|title=Human Resource Management|author1=Derek Torrington |author2=Laura Hall |author3=Stephen Taylor |name-list-style=amp |pages=363|publisher=Pearson Education|date=2004|isbn=9780273687139}}</ref>
 
Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities.<ref name="Bell 2008 296–316">{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Bradford S.|last2=Kozlowski|first2=Steve W. J.|date=2008|title=Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=93|issue=2|pages=296–316|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296|pmid=18361633|issn=1939-1854|url=https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1417&context=articles|hdl=1813/75102|hdl-access=free}}</ref> These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=Mark A.|last2=Schlager|first2=Mark S.|date=June 1990|title=Discovery Learning and Transfer of Problem-Solving Skills|journal=Cognition and Instruction|volume=7|issue=2|pages=129–159|doi=10.1207/s1532690xci0702_3|issn=0737-0008}}</ref> error management training,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Keith|first1=Nina|last2=Frese|first2=Michael|date=2005|title=Self-Regulation in Error Management Training: Emotion Control and Metacognition as Mediators of Performance Effects.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=90|issue=4|pages=677–691|doi=10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.677|pmid=16060786|issn=1939-1854|url=http://fox.leuphana.de/portal/de/publications/selfregulation-in-error-management-training-emotion-control-and-metacognition-as-mediators-of-performance-effects(82a4fe6d-6219-40a6-abe7-fc21f6d2bbad).html}}</ref> guided exploration,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wood|first1=Robert|last2=Kakebeeke|first2=Bastiaan|last3=Debowski|first3=Shelda|last4=Frese|first4=Michael|date=April 2000|title=The Impact of Enactive Exploration on Intrinsic Motivation, Strategy, and Performance in Electronic Search|journal=Applied Psychology|volume=49|issue=2|pages=263–283|doi=10.1111/1464-0597.00014|issn=0269-994X}}</ref> and mastery training.<ref name="Bell 2008 296–316"/> Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new- employee orientation, professional- skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in [[High reliability organization|high-reliability organizations]], which rely on high safety standards to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants, and operating rooms).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Roberts|first=Karlene H.|date=July 1990|title=Managing High Reliability Organizations|journal=California Management Review|volume=32|issue=4|pages=101–113|doi=10.2307/41166631|issn=0008-1256|jstor=41166631|s2cid=154274951}}</ref>
 
The instructional systems design approach (often referred to as the ADDIE model) is often used for designing effective learning programs {{Citation needed|date=May 2023}} and used for instructional design., Instructional design isor the process of designing, developing, and delivering learning content. There are 5 phases in the ADDIE model:<ref name="digitalhrtech.com">{{Cite web|date=2020-11-02|title=The ADDIE Model for Instructional Design Explained|url=https://www.digitalhrtech.com/addie-model/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=AIHR Digital|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
# Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources
# Needs assessment
# Program design: mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods
# Program design
# Program development: delivery method, production of learning outcomes, quality evaluation of learning outcome, development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessment and evaluation tools
# Program development
# Training delivery/ and implementation: participation in side-programs, training delivery, learning participation, and evaluation of business
# Evaluation of training: formal evaluation, including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement
 
Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Other training methods may include:
'''Needs assessment -''' Problem identification; training needs analysis; determination of audience determined; identification of stakeholder's needs; identification of the resources required.<ref name="digitalhrtech.com">{{Cite web|date=2020-11-02|title=The ADDIE Model for Instructional Design Explained|url=https://www.digitalhrtech.com/addie-model/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=AIHR Digital|language=en-US}}</ref>
 
* Apprenticeship training: training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience both on and off the job in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=189}}</ref>
'''Program design -''' Mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods.<ref name="digitalhrtech.com" />
* Co-operative programs and internship programs: training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education, and are usually offered at colleges and universities<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=190}}</ref>
* Classroom instruction: information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction<ref name=":12" />
* Self-directed learning: individuals work at their own pace during programmed instruction, which may include books, manuals, or computers that break down subject-matter content into highly-organized logical sequences that demand a continuous response on the trainee's part.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=191}}</ref> It often includes the use of computer and/or online resources.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peacock |first1=Melanie |title=Understanding Human Resources Management |last2=Steward |first2=Eileen B. |last3=Belcourt |first3=Monica |publisher=Alexis Hood |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-17-679806-2 |pages=192}}</ref>
* Audiovisual: methods used to teach the skills and procedures required for a number of jobs through audiovisual means<ref name=":13" />
* Simulation: used when it is not practical or safe to train people on the actual equipment or within the actual work environment<ref name=":13" />
 
There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some{{Who|date=September 2024}} believe training wastes time and money because, in certain cases, real life experience may be better than education, and organizations want to spend less, not more.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Say|first=My|title=Why Your Employee Training Is A Waste Of Time And Money -- And What To Do About It|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/groupthink/2015/08/30/why-your-employee-training-is-a-waste-of-time-and-money-and-what-to-do-about-it/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>
'''Program development -''' Determination of delivery method, production of learning product; along with quality evaluation of the learning product; development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessments and evaluation tools.<ref name="digitalhrtech.com" />
[[File:Training Seminar.jpg|thumb|418x418px|Seminar training method]]
 
'''Implementation -''' Participation in side-programs, training delivery, learning participation, and evaluation of business.<ref name="digitalhrtech.com" />
 
'''Evaluation -''' Formal evaluation; including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement.<ref name="digitalhrtech.com" />
 
Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods. On-the-job training methods happen within the organization, and include methods where employees learn by working alongside co-workers in ways such as [[coaching]], [[mentorship]], internship, apprenticeship, job rotation, job instructional technique (JIT), or by being an understudy.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Off-the-job training methods, however, happen outside the organization; off-the-job methods include lectures, seminars, and conferences; this may also include simulation exercises, such as case studies and role-playing.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} It could also include vestibule, sensitivity or transactional training activities.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Other training methods may include:
 
'''Apprenticeship training -''' System of training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience, both on and off the job, in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=189}}</ref>
 
'''Co-operative programs and internship programs -''' Training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education. Typically these programs are offered at colleges and universities.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=190}}</ref>
 
'''Classroom instruction -''' Information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction. <ref name=":12" />
 
'''Self-directed learning -''' Individuals work at their own pace during programmed instruction. This may include books, manuals, or computers that break down subject-matter content into highly organized, logical sequences that demand a continuous response on the trainee's part.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=191}}</ref> This often includes the use of computer and/or online resources.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peacock |first1=Melanie |title=Understanding Human Resources Management |last2=Steward |first2=Eileen B. |last3=Belcourt |first3=Monica |publisher=Alexis Hood |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-17-679806-2 |pages=192}}</ref>
 
'''Audiovisual -''' Methods used to teach the skills and procedures required for a number of jobs through visual means.<ref name=":13" />
 
'''Simulation -''' Used when it is not practical or safe to train people on the actual equipment or within the actual work environment.<ref name=":13" />
 
<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|title=The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits|url=https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/importance-of-training|access-date=2020-11-29|website=Indeed Career Guide|language=en-us}}</ref> There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some believe training wastes time and money because, in certain cases, real life experience may trump education, and organizations want to spend less, not more.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Say|first=My|title=Why Your Employee Training Is A Waste Of Time And Money -- And What To Do About It|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/groupthink/2015/08/30/why-your-employee-training-is-a-waste-of-time-and-money-and-what-to-do-about-it/|access-date=2020-11-29|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Training Seminar.jpg|center|thumb|418x418px|Seminar Training Method]]
 
 
== Principles ==
Aik and Tway (2006) estimated that only 20-3020–30% of training given to employees are used within the next month.<ref name="Aik 28–32">{{Cite journal|last1=Aik|first1=Chong Tek|last2=Tway|first2=Duane C.|date=March 2006|title=Elements and principles of training as a performance improvement solution|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pfi.2006.4930450307|journal=Performance Improvement|volume=45|issue=3|pages=28–32|doi=10.1002/pfi.2006.4930450307|issn=1090-8811}}</ref> To mitigate thisthe issue, they recommended some general principles to follow to increase the employees' desire to take part in the program. These include:
 
* Improvingimproving [[self-efficacy]], which increases the learner's personal belief that they can fully comprehend the teachings.<ref name="Aik 28–32"/>
* Maintainingmaintaining a positive attitude, as an uncooperative attitude towards learning could hinder the individual's capability to grasp the knowledge being provided.<ref name="Aik 28–32"/>
* Increasingincreasing competence, which is the ability for an individual to make good decisions efficiently.<ref name="Aik 28–32"/>
* Providingproviding external motivators, such as a reward for the completion of the training or an extrinsic goal to follow.<ref name="Aik 28–32"/>
 
=== Motivation ===
Motivation is an internal process that leads toinfluences an employee's behaviourbehavior and willingness to achieve organizational goals.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stack, Laura|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/852507794|title=Managing employee performance : motivation, ability, and obstacles|date=2013|publisher=Productivity Pro|isbn=978-1-62723-025-4|___location=[Highlands Ranch, CO]|oclc=852507794}}</ref> Creating a motivational environment within an organization can help employees achieve their highest level of productivity.,<ref name="Aik 28–32" /> Motivationand can create an engaged workforce that enhances individual and organizational performance.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=MacRae, Ian (Psychologist)|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/966315014|title=Motivation and performance : a guide to motivating a diverse workforce|others=Furnham, Adrian.|date=3 February 2017|isbn=978-0-7494-7814-8|___location=London|oclc=966315014}}</ref> The model for motivation is represented by motivators separated into two different categories:
 
* Intrinsic factors:, Thesewhich represent the internal factors toof an individual, such as the {{Clarify span|difficulty of the work|Sounds more like an extrinsic factor|date=September 2024}}, achievement recognition, responsibility, opportunity for meaningful work, involvement in decision making, and importance within the organization.<ref name=":9" />
* Extrinsic factors:, Thesewhich are external factors external to the individual, such as job security, salary, benefits, work conditions, and vacations.<ref name=":9" />
[[File:Training and Development Conference.jpg|thumb|Training and Development Conference]]
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators linkassociate towith employee performance in the workplace. A company's techniques to motivate employees may change over time depending on the current dynamics of the workplace.<ref name=":9" />
 
=== Feedback ===
Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees’ perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Gottfredson|first2=Ryan K.|last3=Joo|first3=Harry|date=2012-03-01|title=Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681311001509|journal=Business Horizons|language=en|volume=55|issue=2|pages=105–111|doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.004|s2cid=154034097 |issn=0007-6813}}</ref>
There are many basic training and development principles in human resource management. For instance, performance feedback is important as managers can use it to identify the employee's lack of skills in areas of the job and their approach to improving that weakness while maintaining behaviour.
 
Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement-based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the faster attendees are apt to learn.<ref name=":11">Nelson, Bob. “A Dose of Positive Reinforcement Can Go a Long Way.” ''T+D'', vol. 67, no. 3, Mar. 2013, pp. 40–44. ''EBSCOhost'', library.macewan.ca/full-record/bth/85852296.</ref>
Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees’ perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last1=Aguinis|first1=Herman|last2=Gottfredson|first2=Ryan K.|last3=Joo|first3=Harry|date=2012-03-01|title=Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0007681311001509|journal=Business Horizons|language=en|volume=55|issue=2|pages=105–111|doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.004|s2cid=154034097 |issn=0007-6813}}</ref> Employers often use another type of feedback, strengths-based feedback, which is a type of positive feedback that allows the employees to recognize their strengths and further improve their performance with that knowledge.<ref name=":10" /> It has been shown that using this strategy as a base for constructive feedback shows support and encouragement towards the employee, which boosts their confidence{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}. Confidence in the workplace allows individuals to stay focused and engaged. However, the disadvantage of strengths-based feedback is failing to perform at one's full potential due to overconfidence.
 
Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the more—and faster—attendees are apt to learn.<ref name=":11">Nelson, Bob. “A Dose of Positive Reinforcement Can Go a Long Way.” ''T+D'', vol. 67, no. 3, Mar. 2013, pp. 40–44. ''EBSCOhost'', library.macewan.ca/full-record/bth/85852296.</ref> Another aspect of reinforcement-based training is to discuss what has been taught in a training session and how employees can apply what they have learned to the job. This can be done by conducting pre and post-training brainstorming sessions.
 
== Benefits ==
The benefits of the training and development of employees include:
 
* Increasedincreased productivity and performance in the workplace<ref name=":1" />
* Uniformityuniformity of work processes
* Skillsskills and team development<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Citation |last1=Kozlowski |first1=Steve W. J. |title=Work Groups and Teams in Organizations |date=2003-04-15 |work=Handbook of Psychology |url=https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/articles/389 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |doi=10.1002/0471264385.wei1214 |isbn=0471264385 |hdl=1813/75229 |s2cid=28847722 |last2=Bell |first2=Bradford S. |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last1=Salas |first1=Eduardo |title=Improving patient safety through teamwork and team training |last2=Frush |first2=Karen |date=24 August 2012 |others=Salas, Eduardo, Frush, Karen |isbn=9780199875542 |___location=New York |oclc=811142213}}</ref>
* Reducedreduced supervision and wastage
* Decreasea decrease in safety-related accidents<ref name=":15" />
* Improvedimproved organizational structure, designs and morale
* Betterbetter knowledge of policies and organization's goals
* improved customer valuation<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits |url=https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/importance-of-training |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=Indeed Career Guide |language=en-us}}</ref>
* Improved customer valuation<ref name=":14" />
 
However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and pointed at specific goalsgoal-oriented.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning and development|last=Rebecca|first=Page-Tickell|isbn=9780749469894|edition= 1st|___location=London|oclc=883248797|date = 3 July 2014}}</ref> [[Needs assessment]]s, especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it should be trained, and how extensively.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Judith|date=December 2002|title=Training Needs Assessment: A Must for Developing an Effective Training Program|journal=Public Personnel Management|volume=31|issue=4|pages=569–578|doi=10.1177/009102600203100412|s2cid=154852480|issn=0091-0260}}</ref> Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The needs assessment can predict the degree of effectiveness of training and development programs and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities).<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last1=Tannenbaum|first1=S I|last2=Yukl|first2=G|date=January 1992|title=Training and Development in Work Organizations|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=43|issue=1|pages=399–441|doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151}}</ref> EffectivenessTraining of trainingeffectiveness is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few studies investigating the impacts on organizations.<ref name=":1" />
== Barriers and access to training ==
 
Training and development are crucial to organisationalorganizational performance, employee career advancement and engagement.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hassett |first1=MP |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |journal=Public Personal Management |date=2022 |pages=380-404 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref> Despite advancements in workplace equality, some people will continue to face significant barriers to training opportunities. These barriers may disproportionately affect people based on their minority status, such as gender or cultural identification.
 
Disparities in training can be caused by several factors, including societal norms and cultural biases that significantly impact the distribution of training opportunities. Stereotypes and implicit biases can undermine the confidence and performance of minority groups to seek out training, affecting their career development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination |journal=Review of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |pages=274-293 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref>
To address these disparities, organisations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. By adopting these policies and fostering supportive networks, organisations can ensure they are providing diverse work forces with equal access to training opportunities.
 
The impact of excluding or limiting a person’s access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.
This disparity is caused by several factors:
 
* Disparities in training opportunities can adversely affect individuals from underrepresented groups, leading to slower career progression, reduced employee engagement, and limited professional growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hassett |first1=MP |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |journal=Public Personal Management |date=2022 |pages=380-404 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref> Individuals may experience lower self-esteem and decreased motivation due to perceived or actual access to development opportunities. For example, if a leadership training program does not have minority representation, individuals may lack the confidence to “break the glass ceiling” and seek out the opportunity for themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |pages=133-151 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |ref=}}</ref>
# 1. '''Historical inequities and systemic biases''' are barriers to access to professional development. Structural factors, such as historical exclusion of women and minorities from certain roles, create a legacy of unequal access to training resources. For instance, women and minorities often have less access to senior mentors and role models, which can limit their visibility and opportunities for advancement.
* When training opportunities are not equitably distributed, organizations may have reduced diversity in leadership and decision-making, which may stifle innovation and hinder organizational performance. Failure to address these disparities can lead to higher turnover rates and lower employee morale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=CA |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees’ Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |journal=American Society for Public Administration |pages=194-215 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244}}</ref>
 
Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders’ demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |pages=133-151 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135}}</ref>
# 2. '''Societal norms and cultural biases''' significantly impact the distribution of training opportunities. Stereotypes and implicit biases can undermine the confidence and performance of minority groups to seek out training, affecting their career development.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination |journal=Review of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |pages=274-293 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref> For example, cultural expectations, sexual harassment or other discrimination may dissuade women from pursuing leadership roles, thereby limiting their access to formal training or mentoring programs.
 
To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:
# 3. '''Organisational practices''' can perpetuate disparities in training access. Biased recruitment and selection processes, unequal distribution of resources, and a lack of targeted support for underrepresented groups contribute to this issue. For instance, training programs often fail to address the specific needs of minority groups, leading to a mismatch between available opportunities and the actual development needs of these employees. For example, some leadership programs might fail to address cultural differences in leadership, promoting instead traditional hierarchical systems that are not followed in some minority cultures.
 
* implementing inclusive policies for addressing disparities: organizations should establish diversity and inclusion programs that specifically target training and development opportunities for underrepresented groups, which should focus on opportunities for future managers at the bottom of the hierarchy, as advancement to lower-level and middle-level positions is crucial for promotion to upper-level management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |pages=133-151 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135}}</ref> These policies can help ensure employees have equal access to career advancement resources and can increase the implementation of mechanisms for reporting discrimination or advancement barriers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination. |journal=Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |pages=274-293 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref> Some efforts to support diversity and exclusion commitments in workplaces may be enshrined in law, such as the New Zealand Public Service Act 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand Public Service Act 2020 |url=https://legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2020/0040/latest/LMS106159.html |publisher=Legislation New Zealand |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref>
The impact of excluding or limited a person’s access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organisation.
* Developing mentorship and sponsorship programs: these programs can support underrepresented groups by providing them with guidance, networking opportunities, and advocacy within the organisation. Creating supportive networks for minority and gender groups can provide safe spaces for people identifying as minorities to develop programs that are suited to them and to provide a united voice to report ongoing discrimination.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination |journal=Review of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |pages=274-293 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref>
* Using data to track and address disparities in training opportunities: this may include censuses<ref>{{cite web |title=Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service |url=https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/system/public-service-people/diversity-and-inclusion/improving-diversity-and-inclusion-in-the-public-service |website=Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission |publisher=Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref> or regular pulse surveys or records of learning that are linked to a person’s self-identified attributes.
 
# 1. '''Individual''' - disparities in training opportunities can adversely affect individuals from underrepresented groups, leading to slower career progression, reduced employee engagement, and limited professional growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hassett |first1=MP |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |journal=Public Personal Management |date=2022 |pages=380-404 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189}}</ref> Individuals may experience lower self-esteem and decreased motivation due to perceived or actual access to development opportunities. For example, if a leadership training programme does not have minority representation, individuals may lack the confidence to “break the glass ceiling” and seek out the opportunity for themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |pages=133-151 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135 |ref=}}</ref>
 
# 2.''' Organisation''' - when training opportunities are not equitably distributed, organisations may have reduced diversity in leadership and decision-making. This can stifle innovation and hinder organisational performance. Failure to address these disparities can lead to higher turnover rates and lower employee morale.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=CA |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees’ Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |journal=American Society for Public Administration |pages=194-215 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244}}</ref> Organisations may also face legal challenges related to discrimination claims.
 
Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders’ demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programmes if the management team is also diverse.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |pages=133-151 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135}}</ref>
 
To address these disparities, organisations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:
 
# 1. '''Implementing inclusive policies for addressing disparities'''. Organisations should establish diversity and inclusion programs that specifically target training and development opportunities for underrepresented groups. These programmes should focus on opportunities for future managers at the bottom of the hierarchy, as advancement to lower-level and middle-level positions is crucial for promotion to upper-level management.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eddy |first1=S |last2=Ng |first2=AG |title=The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management. |journal=Human Resource Management Journal |date=2017 |pages=133-151 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12135}}</ref> These policies can help ensure employees have equal access to career advancement resources and can increase the implementation of mechanisms for reporting discrimination or advancement barriers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination. |journal=Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |pages=274-293 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref> Some efforts to support diversity and exclusion commitments in workplaces may be enshrined in law, for example the New Zealand Public Service Act 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Zealand Public Service Act 2020 |url=https://legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2020/0040/latest/LMS106159.html |publisher=Legislation New Zealand |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref>
 
# 2. '''Incorporating bias training into organisational practices'''. Training programs that raise awareness about unconscious biases and teach strategies for mitigating them can help create a more equitable development environment and promote discussion where minority groups have been excluded.
 
# 3. '''Developing mentorship and sponsorship programme'''. These can support underrepresented groups by providing them with guidance, networking opportunities, and advocacy within the organisation. Creating supportive networks for minority and gender groups can provide safe spaces for people identifying as minorities to develop programmes that are suited to them and to provide a united voice to report ongoing discrimination.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=HH |title=Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination |journal=Review of Public and Personnel Administration |date=2021 |pages=274-293 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19880578}}</ref>
 
# 4. '''Using data to track and address disparities in training opportunities'''. Organisations should collect data on training participation and outcomes to identify and address gaps. This may include census<ref>{{cite web |title=Improving diversity and inclusion in the Public Service |url=https://www.publicservice.govt.nz/system/public-service-people/diversity-and-inclusion/improving-diversity-and-inclusion-in-the-public-service |website=Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission |publisher=Te Kawa Mataaho Public Service Commission |access-date=17 September 2024}}</ref> or regular pulse surveys or records of learning that are linked to a person’s self-identified attributes. This approach helps ensure that interventions are based on empirical evidence and are targeted where they are most needed.
== Occupation ==
The Occupational Information Network (O*NET) cites Trainingtraining and Developmentdevelopment Specialistsspecialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|url=https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/13-1151.00?redir=13-1073.00|title=13-1151.00 - Training and Development Specialists|website=www.onetonline.org|access-date=2019-03-01}}</ref> Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, [[Industrial and organizational psychology|industrial-organizational psychologists]], and [[organization development]] consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=13-1151.00 - Training and Development Specialists |url=https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/13-1151.00?redir=13-1073.00 |access-date=2019-03-01 |website=www.onetonline.org}}</ref>
 
== Adaptative Training Methodsin forenhancing Hybridpublic Workingservice Modelsmotivation ==
 
The COVID-19 pandemic triggered a significant shift in work environments, with many organisations rapidly adopting hybrid working models <ref> Mayer, B., & Boston, M. (2022). Residential built environment and working from home: A New Zealand perspective during COVID-19. Cities, 129, 103844. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2022.103844</ref>. In New Zealand, a national survey revealed that a large portion of the workforce, particularly in the public sector, had no prior experience with remote work before the pandemic<ref>O'Kane, P., Walton, S., & Ruwhiu, D. (2020). Remote Working during COVID19: New Zealand National Survey. Work Futures Otago: Trends, Disruptions and Transitions. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.18753.58720</ref>. A number of benefits were identified such as reducing commute stress, improved work-life balance and flexible working schedules. Globally, there has been an unstoppable shift towards offering remote working opportunities. Organisations are rapidly evolving their policies to provide employees with the flexibility to work remotely<ref>Beck, M. J., & Hensher, D. A. (2022). Working from home in Australia in 2020: Positives, negatives and the potential for future benefits to transport and society. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 158, 271-284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2022.03.016</ref>. This shift balances employee demands for autonomy with operational needs, signalling a long-term transformation in workplace dynamics across industries<ref> Smite, D., Moe, N. B., Hildrum, J., Gonzalez-Huerta, J., & Mendez, D. (2023). Work-from-home is here to stay: Call for flexibility in post-pandemic work policies. Journal of Systems and Software, 195, 111552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jss.2022.111552</ref>.
 
Hybrid models offer flexibility but also present challenges such as lacking social engagement<ref>Galanti, T., Guidetti, G., Mazzei, E., Zappalà, S., & Toscano, F. (2021). Work from home during the COVID-19 outbreak. Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine, 63(7), e426-e432. https://doi.org/10.1097/jom.0000000000002236</ref> , and the risks of overwork<ref>De Laat, K. (2023). Living to work (from home): Overwork, remote work, and gendered dual devotion to work and family. Work and Occupations. https://doi.org/10.1177/07308884231207772</ref> . This has led to an increased focus on creating training solutions that enable employees to remain engaged and productive, regardless of their physical ___location<ref>Babapour Chafi, M., Hultberg, A., & Bozic Yams, N. (2021). Post-pandemic office work: Perceived challenges and opportunities for a sustainable work environment. Sustainability, 14(1), 294. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010294</ref>. This reinforces the need for tailored training programs in hybrid settings that cater to the distinct demands of both in-office and remote workers<ref> Naqshbandi, M. M., Kabir, I., Ishak, N. A., & Islam, M. Z. (2023). The future of work: Work engagement and job performance in the hybrid workplace. The Learning Organization, 31(1), 5-26. https://doi.org/10.1108/tlo-08-2022-0097</ref>.
 
The following are key features and benefits of hybrid working models that help organisations adapt training and development strategies to meet the needs of both remote and in-office employees, while also promoting flexibility, engagement and diverse learning needs:
 
• '''E-Learning Platforms'''
Digital tools such as e-learning platforms are revolutionising training in hybrid work environments. E-learning platforms provide a flexible learning experience, allowing employees to access a wide range of courses tailored to their roles and schedules<ref> Zorzoliu, R., & Iatagan, M. (2017). Training of human resources through elearning platforms. eLearning and Software for Education, 1, 592-597. https://doi.org/10.12753/2066-026x-17-087</ref>. E-learning platforms also enhance engagement through interactive features like quizzes, video content, and assessments<ref>Serema, M. M., Shihomeka, D. S., & Shalyefu, R. K. (2023). Adoption and utilisation of workplace E-learning practices in the public sector organisations: A systematic review. Journal of Learning for Development, 10(3), 346-360. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v10i3.944</ref>.
 
• '''Collaboration Tools'''
Tools like Microsoft Teams and Zoom play a crucial role in fostering interaction and collaboration in hybrid working models. These platforms enable seamless communication between remote and in-office employees through video conferencing, chat, file sharing, and group activities. They bridge the gap by creating virtual meeting spaces where employees can collaborate in real-time, host training sessions, and conduct team-building exercises, ensuring that all participants remain engaged and productive regardless of their physical ___location. This supports cohesion and collaboration in a hybrid work environment<ref> Deželak, Z., Zabukovšek, S. S., & Bobek, S. (2023). Changes of collaboration platforms' use perceived by users because of COVID: A research study of changes in user experience of Microsoft teams platform. Reshaping the Business World Post-COVID-19, 93-125. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003372424-4</ref>.
 
• '''Synchronous and Asynchronous Learning'''
Synchronous learning involves real-time interactions facilitated by online platforms. These platforms are designed to replicate face-to-face environments, thereby promoting communication, collaboration, and instantaneous feedback. This approach proves particularly advantageous for subjects such as ethics training or regulatory updates, where live interactions can clarify complex issues.
 
On the other hand, Asynchronous learning allows employees to access pre-recorded materials, lectures, and resources at their own pace. This flexibility accommodates different schedules, which is especially crucial for hybrid models where remote workers need more control over their time<ref> Amiti, F. (2020). Synchronous and asynchronous E-lEarning. European Journal of Open Education and E-learning Studies, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.46827/ejoe.v5i2.3313</ref>.
 
 
== Training in Enhancing Public Service Motivation ==
{{AI-generated|section|certain=no|date=September 2024}}
=== Training and public service motivation ===
Training and development are pivotal in the public sector, serving as essential tools for enhancing the skills, knowledge, and motivation of employees. Public Service Motivation (PSM) is a concept that has garnered significant attention, particularly in the context of training public employees. PSM refers to the intrinsic motivation to serve the public and contribute to the common good. Training programs designed to enhance PSM can lead to improved job performance and satisfaction among public sector employees.
Research by Chen ''et al''. (2019) explores the potential of training programs to enhance public service motivation among public employees. The findings suggest that training may enhance motivation, provided that the training is perceived as effective and satisfactory by the participants.<ref name=cac>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Chung-An |last2=Hsieh |first2=Chih-Wei |last3=Chen |first3=Don-Yun |date=March 2021 |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees’ Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |issn=0734-371X}}</ref>
 
=== Training and Public Service Motivation ===
Research by Chen et al. (2019)<ref name=cac>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Chung-An |last2=Hsieh |first2=Chih-Wei |last3=Chen |first3=Don-Yun |date=March 2021 |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees’ Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |issn=0734-371X}}</ref> explores the potential of training programs to enhance PSM among public employees. The study employs a pretest-posttest design to assess whether training can lead to improvements in PSM, public service knowledge, and attitudes toward public service work. The findings suggest that training can indeed enhance PSM, provided that the training is perceived as effective and satisfactory by the participants. This highlights the importance of designing training programs that are not only informative but also engaging and relevant to the employees' roles.
 
=== Knowledge and Attitude Development ===
Training programs in the public sector often focus on imparting essential knowledge and skills required for effective job performance. Training can improve employees' basic knowledge of public service, including understanding the goals of public service, the importance of neutrality, and the relationship between public employees and the state.<ref name=cac/> Additionally, training can foster positive attitudes toward public service work, which are crucial for maintaining high levels of motivation and job satisfaction.
 
=== The Impact of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs ===
Self-efficacy and instrumentality beliefs play a significant role in the successful implementation of training programs.<ref name=sq>{{Cite journal |last=Quratulain |first=Samina |last2=Khan |first2=Abdul Karim |last3=Sabharwal |first3=Meghna |last4=Javed |first4=Basharat |date=June 2021 |title=Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19876676 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=250–273 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19876676 |issn=0734-371X}}</ref> examine the role of self-efficacy and instrumentality beliefs in the implementation of training programs. Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in their ability to perform tasks successfully, while instrumentality beliefs pertain to the perceived usefulness of training in achieving career goals. Employees with high self-efficacy and strong instrumentality beliefs are more likely to apply the skills and knowledge gained from training in their work. This underscores the need for training programs to not only impart knowledge but also boost employees' confidence in their abilities and the relevance of the training to their career advancement. Enhancing these beliefs can lead to a more effective transfer of training, ultimately improving job performance and satisfaction.
 
=== Training as a High-Performance Work Practice ===
Training and development are integral components of high-performance work practices, which are human resource practices designed to enhance employee motivation and performance. Training and development opportunities are considered high-performance work practices as they promote personal and professional growth, leading to increased work engagement and organizational performance. Providing both formal and informal training opportunities, such as mentoring and on-the-job experience, can cultivate a motivated and skilled workforce. This approach not only enhances individual capabilities but also contributes to the overall effectiveness and efficiency of public sector organizations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hassett |first=Michael P. |date=September 2022 |title=The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rates of Work Engagement, Within the U.S. Federal Workforce |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00910260221098189 |journal=Public Personnel Management |language=en |volume=51 |issue=3 |pages=380–404 |doi=10.1177/00910260221098189 |issn=0091-0260}}</ref>
 
=== Challenges and Opportunities ===
Despite the potential benefits of training, there are challenges in its implementation. Public managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.<ref name=cac/> Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the true yield of training investments, particularly in terms of long-term outcomes.<ref name=sq/> To address these challenges, it is essential to design training programs that are evidence-based and tailored to the specific needs of public sector employees. Moreover, ongoing evaluation and feedback mechanisms can help refine training programs and ensure their effectiveness in enhancing PSM and overall job performance.
 
In conclusion, training and development play a vital role in enhancing Public Service Motivation and improving the performance of public sector employees. By focusing on knowledge acquisition, attitude development, and the cultivation of self-efficacy and instrumentality beliefs, training programs can lead to significant improvements in employee motivation and job satisfaction. As public sector organizations continue to face challenges in a rapidly changing environment, investing in effective training and development programs will be crucial for building a motivated and capable workforce. This investment not only benefits individual employees but also enhances the overall capacity of public sector organizations to deliver high-quality services to the public.
 
=== Knowledge and attitude development ===
Training programs in the public sector often focus on imparting essential knowledge and skills required for effective job performance. Training can improve employees' basic knowledge of public service, including understanding the goals of public service, the importance of neutrality, and the relationship between public employees and the state.<ref name=cac/>
 
=== Challenges and opportunities ===
Despite the potential benefits of training, there are challenges in its implementation. Public managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.<ref name="cac" /> Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the true yield of training investments, particularly in terms of long-term outcomes.<ref name="sq">{{Cite journal |last=Quratulain |first=Samina |last2=Khan |first2=Abdul Karim |last3=Sabharwal |first3=Meghna |last4=Javed |first4=Basharat |date=June 2021 |title=Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19876676 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=250–273 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19876676 |issn=0734-371X}}</ref>
== See also ==
*{{annotated link|[[Adult education}}]]
*[[Andragogy]] - The theory of adult learning
*{{annotated link|[[Microtraining}}]]
*{{annotated link|Training}}
 
== References ==
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Training_and_development"