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==History==
Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Alagaraja|first1=Meera|last2=Dooley|first2=Larry M.|date=March 2003|title=Origins and Historical Influences on Human Resource Development: A Global Perspective|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1534484303251170|journal=Human Resource Development Review|language=en|volume=2|issue=1|pages=82–96|doi=10.1177/1534484303251170|s2cid=143353567 |issn=1534-4843}}</ref> Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the [[Antebellum South]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Phillips|first=Lisa|date=2013-03-08|title=David R. Roediger and Esch Elizabeth. The Production of Difference. Race and the Management of Labor in US History. Oxford University Press, Oxford [etc.]2012. x, 286 pp. Ill. £22.50.|journal=International Review of Social History|volume=58|issue=1|pages=129–131|doi=10.1017/s0020859013000059|s2cid=144977591 |issn=0020-8590|doi-access=free}}</ref> and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by [[Booker T. Washington]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Washington|first=Booker, T.|title=Up From Slavery}}</ref> Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the [[Journal of Applied Psychology]], which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bell|first1=Bradford S.|last2=Tannenbaum|first2=Scott I.|last3=Ford|first3=J. Kevin|last4=Noe|first4=Raymond A.|last5=Kraiger|first5=Kurt|date=2017|title=100 years of training and development research: What we know and where we should go.|journal=Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=102|issue=3|pages=305–323|doi=10.1037/apl0000142|pmid=28125262|issn=1939-1854|url=https://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2306&context=articles|hdl=1813/74878|s2cid=26505012|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since it was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research,<ref name=":0" /> and new training methods were developed, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Campbell|first=J P|date=January 1971|title=Personnel Training and Development|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=22|issue=1|pages=565–602|doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.003025|issn=0066-4308}}</ref> The scope of training and development also expanded to include [[Cross-cultural communication|cross-cultural]] training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new [[organization development]] literature to frame training programs.<ref name=":2" />
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Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}} Other training methods may include:
* [[Apprenticeship|Apprenticeship training]]: training in which a worker entering the skilled trades is given thorough instruction and experience both on and off the job in the practical and theoretical aspects of the work<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=189}}</ref>
* Co-operative programs and internship programs: training programs that combine practical, on-the-job experience with formal education, and are usually offered at colleges and universities<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|last1=Peacock|last2=Steward|last3=Belcourt|first1=Melanie|first2=Eileen B.|first3=Monica|title=Understanding Human Resources Management|publisher=Alexis Hood|year=2020|isbn=978-0-17-679806-2|pages=190}}</ref>
* Classroom instruction: information is presented in lectures, demonstrations, films, and videotapes or through computer instruction<ref name=":12" />
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[[File:Training Seminar.jpg|thumb|418x418px|Seminar training method]]
=== Needs assessments ===
== Principles ==
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* better knowledge of policies and organization's goals
* improved customer valuation<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |title=The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits |url=https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/importance-of-training |access-date=2020-11-29 |website=Indeed Career Guide |language=en-us}}</ref>
▲However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and goal-oriented.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Learning and development|last=Rebecca|first=Page-Tickell|isbn=9780749469894|edition= 1st|___location=London|oclc=883248797|date = 3 July 2014}}</ref> [[Needs assessment]]s, especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it should be trained, and how extensively.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Judith|date=December 2002|title=Training Needs Assessment: A Must for Developing an Effective Training Program|journal=Public Personnel Management|volume=31|issue=4|pages=569–578|doi=10.1177/009102600203100412|s2cid=154852480|issn=0091-0260}}</ref> Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The needs assessment can predict the degree of effectiveness of training and development programs and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities).<ref name=":5">{{cite journal|last1=Tannenbaum|first1=S I|last2=Yukl|first2=G|date=January 1992|title=Training and Development in Work Organizations|journal=[[Annual Review of Psychology]]|volume=43|issue=1|pages=399–441|doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151}}</ref> Training effectiveness is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few studies investigating the impacts on organizations.<ref name=":1" />
== Barriers and access to training ==
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== Occupation ==
The Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, [[Industrial and organizational psychology|industrial-organizational psychologists]], and [[organization development]] consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=13-1151.00 - Training and Development Specialists |url=https://www.onetonline.org/link/summary/13-1151.00?redir=13-1073.00 |access-date=2019-03-01 |website=www.onetonline.org}}</ref>
▲Research by Chen ''et al''. (2019) explores the potential of training programs to enhance public service motivation among public employees. The findings suggest that training may enhance motivation, provided that the training is perceived as effective and satisfactory by the participants.<ref name=cac>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Chung-An |last2=Hsieh |first2=Chih-Wei |last3=Chen |first3=Don-Yun |date=March 2021 |title=Can Training Enhance Public Employees’ Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19872244 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=194–215 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19872244 |issn=0734-371X}}</ref>
▲Despite the potential benefits of training, there are challenges in its implementation. Public managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.<ref name="cac" /> Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the true yield of training investments, particularly in terms of long-term outcomes.<ref name="sq">{{Cite journal |last=Quratulain |first=Samina |last2=Khan |first2=Abdul Karim |last3=Sabharwal |first3=Meghna |last4=Javed |first4=Basharat |date=June 2021 |title=Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0734371X19876676 |journal=Review of Public Personnel Administration |language=en |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=250–273 |doi=10.1177/0734371X19876676 |issn=0734-371X}}</ref>
== See also ==
*[[Adult education]]
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