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[[Defensiveness]] is a reaction to pervasive criticism that often results in responding to criticism with more criticism, and sometimes [[contempt]], and the second level of the Cascade Model.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":3" /> Defensiveness is a protective behavior and is indicated by shifting [[blame]] and avoiding responsibility, often in an attempt to defend against the first two horsemen.<ref name=":3" /> Defensiveness stems from an internal response to protect one's pride and self-worth. The body may go into [[Fight-or-flight response|fight-or-flight mode]] to protect against a perceived threat in the defensive stage. Fowler and Dillow also characterize defensiveness as using counterattack behaviors such as [[Frustration|whining]], making negative assumptions about the other's feelings, and denials of responsibility.<ref name=":5" /> Gottman's and Levenson's research found defensiveness to be strongest among men.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":12" />
=== Horseman Three:
[[Contempt]] is the result of repetitive criticism and is driven by a lack of [[admiration]] and respect.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> It is the third level of the Cascade Model. Contempt is expressed verbally through mocking, [[sarcasm]], and indignation, with an attempt to claim moral superiority over one's partner.<ref name=":3" /> It can also be indicated nonverbally, as with eye-rolling and scoffing''.''<ref name=":5" /> Gottman's and Levenson's research found contempt to be the strongest predictor of relational dissolution, and the strongest overall predictor for women.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":12" />
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