Cities for Climate Protection program: Difference between revisions

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ICLEI's initial pilot project, the Urban {{CO2}} Reduction Project, brought together American, Canadian and European cities to develop a municipal planning framework to reduce GHG emissions and produce an energy management strategy,<ref name="Lindseth, 2004">{{cite journal|last=Lindseth|first=Gard|title=The Cities for Climate Protection Campaign (CCPC) and the Framing of Local Climate Policy|journal=Local Environment|year=2004|volume=9|issue=4|pages=325–336|doi=10.1080/1354983042000246252|s2cid=56048368 }}</ref> leading to the founding of the CCP program. As part of the figuring of the CCP program network, local authorities engaged with national and international governments, developing and implementing GHG emission reduction strategies, and strategies to protect the ability of the biological environment to remove {{CO2}}.<ref name="ICLEI 1993a">{{cite book|last=ICLEI|title=Municipal Leader's Declaration on Climate Change and the Urban Environment|year=1993a|publisher=United Nations|___location=New York}}</ref> From the provision of the founding of the CCP program network, four main goals were stated:

• ‘Re-enforce local commitments in reducing urban GHG emissions

• Disseminating planning and management tools to facilitate the development of cost-effective {{CO2}} reduction policies

• Research and development of best practices, and development of model municipalities that lead by example

• Enhancing national and international ties so that municipal-level actions are included in national action plans and international deliberations’ <ref name="ICLEI 1993b">{{cite book|last=ICLEI|title=Cities for Climate Protection. An International Campaign to Reduce Urban Emissions of Greenhouse Gases|year=1993b|publisher=ICLEI|___location=Toronto}}</ref>

=== Becoming a CCP program member ===

Originally, the CCP program's aim was to enrol local authorities whose collective GHG emissions equated to 10% of the global emissions total.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> By 2001, 8% of this aim had been fulfilled by 549 member cities,<ref name="Bulkeley & Betsill, 2003">{{cite book|last=Bulkeley|first=Harriet|title=Cities and Climate Change: Urban Sustainability and Global Environmental governance|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|___location=New York}}</ref> with 2008 figures suggesting current member cities account for 15% of global GHG emissions.<ref name="Toly, 2008" /> In becoming a CCP program member, local authorities must adopt a resolution <ref name="Lindseth, 2004" /> or formal declaration intending to address the threats imposed by global climate change.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> Once part of the network program, member cities commit to completing five milestones of:

• ‘Conducting an energy and [[emission inventory]] and forecast

• Establishing an emissions reduction target

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<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" />

The five milestones help local authorities understand how municipal decisions concern urban energy use, illustrating global [[climate change mitigation]] through reduced energy use.<ref name="Lindseth, 2004" /> The founding body of the CCP, ICLEI, provides member cities with guidance, training and technical assistance to complete the five milestones. The member cities of the CCP program isare what make it a transnational municipal network, structured through regional and national campaign offices.

== Decentralization of the CCP program ==

ICLEI initially operated a top-down governing approach ofto the CCP program, coordinated from the ICLEI's international base, Toronto.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> In an attempt to introduce a [[multi-level governance]] approach toward the delivery of the CCP program, national and regional campaigns were formed, decentralising the program. The UK, US, Australia, Canada, Finland, India, Mexico and South Africa amongst others saw national campaigns, whilst regional campaigns merged throughout Europe, Asia and Latin America.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> Financial resources are contributed significantly by nation-state governments especially in the US, Canada and Australia toward their national campaigns. Similarly, the ICLEI Europe receives direct funding from the European Commission, creating resource opportunities for transnational networks through project and initiative competition.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> The decentralisation still demonstrates resilient transnational [[network governance]] but now operating on a multi-level governance scale.

== The CCP as a Local Climate Policy ==

Stemming from membership, CCP cities publicly demonstrate their recognition of global climate change as a ‘legitimate local concern,’ committed to controlling the threats of local greenhouse gas emissions,<ref name="Betsill, 2001">{{cite journal|last=Betsill|first=Michele|title=Mitigating Climate Change in US Cities: opportunities and obstacles|journal=Local Environment|year=2001|volume=6|issue=4|pages=393–406|doi=10.1080/13549830120091699|s2cid=154116644 }}</ref> immediately focusing the CCP program upon city local climate policy agendas. Problematically, many city governments do not take action uponon climate change as they see it as a ‘global issue,’ whereby local decision -makers should not be concerned. However, member CCP program municipal governments succeed in ‘localising’ global climate concerns, governing a global issue at a local policy scale. CCP cities adhere to linking the controlling of GHG emission policies with issues already implemented upon their agendas.<ref name="Betsill, 2001" /> Climate concerns can be integrated into local policy sectors representing economic development, urban and land-use planning, traffic, housing and tax.<ref name="Lindseth, 2004" /> In getting global climate change issues within local policy, many CCP cities localise the policies that govern the controlling of GHG emissions, as opposed to the intricate problems of climate change.<ref name="Betsill, 2001" /> This way, more issues enter government local policy agendas through the delivery of preferred policy options as a means of solution to climate change problems already being addressed by the government.<ref name="Kingdon, 1995">{{cite book|last=Kingdon|first=J. A.|title=Agendas, Alternatives and Public Policies|url=https://archive.org/details/agendasalternati00king|url-access=registration|year=1995|publisher=Harper Collins|___location=New York|isbn=9780673523891 }}</ref> Local ‘hooks’ is a term often used in US cities to relate the concern of GHG emissions with local issues such as air quality. Such local issues provide the ‘hooks’ by which climate change issues are hung, prompting local governments to retain and address climate change as a localised issue.<ref name="Betsill, 2001" /> If climate concerns at the local level are to matter, and to become a success, more municipal governments must become members of the CCP program, allowing their actions to positively contribute to GHG emissions.<ref name="Lindseth, 2004" />

The CCP program is a resource that [[Municipal government]]s have drawn upon in advancing particular local energy or environmental policies with sizeable global climate consequences, to a manageable scale in which local governments should act and be concerned.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> The program in relation to local climate policy provides inspirationsinspiration, recognition and legitimation surrounding the environmental responsibilities of local government and in linking such to existent local agendas.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> The CCP cities have negotiated, reiterated and sustained many actions concerning local climate protection,<ref name="Keck & Sikkink, 1998">{{cite book|last=Keck|first=M|title=Activists Beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics|year=1998|publisher=Cornell University Press|___location=New York|author2=Sikkink, K}}</ref> in stabilising urban GHG emission reductions.

== The CCP program as a Transnational Governance Network ==

Transnational governance is distinct in that it involves both state and non-state actors, contributing differing sources and capacities of authority.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009">{{cite journal|last=Andonova|first=L. B |author2=Betsill, M. M. |author3=Bulkeley, H|title=Transnational Climate Governance.|journal=Global Environmental Politics|year=2009|volume=9|issue=2|pages=52–73|doi=10.1162/glep.2009.9.2.52|s2cid=57565967 }}</ref> As a network, they involve ‘regular interaction across national boundaries when at least one actor is a non-state agent or does not operate on behalf of a national government or intergovernmental organisation’.<ref name="Risse-Kappen, 1995">{{cite book|last=Risse-Kappen|first=T|title=Bringing Transnational Relations Back In: Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures and International Institutions|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|___location=Cambridge}}</ref> The CCP program operates within nation-states via national and regional campaigns, as well as cross boundaries between international nations, between state and non-state actors, fitting Risse-Kappen's transnational governance network definition. Transnational governance networks assemble information, knowledge and values objectifying ‘the integration of new conceptions of… environmental phenomena into everydayevery day worldwide views and practices’ of public and private actors.<ref name="Lipschutz, R">{{cite book |last=Lipschutz |first=R |title=Saving the Seas: Values, Scientists, and International Governance |year=1997 |publisher=Maryland Sea Grant College|___location=College Park, MD |author-link=Networks of Knowledge and Practice: Global Civil Society and Protection of the Global Environment |editor=Brooks, L. A. |editor2=VanDeever, S. D}}</ref> The CCP program is identified as a public transnational governance network, as opposed to a hybrid or private transnational network, as such networks are established by and for public actors.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009" /> Public transnational governance networks are founded via ductile co-operationcooperation such as agreements of understanding, exemplified by the resolution or formal declaration imposed by a pending member of the CCP program, rather than formal sanctions of intergovernmental agreements from the state.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009" />

<ref name="Slaughter, 2004">{{cite book|last=Slaughter|first=A. M.|title=A New World Order|url=https://archive.org/details/newworldorderann00slau|url-access=registration|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|___location=Princeton, NJ|isbn=9780691116983 }}</ref> and <ref name="Raustiala, K. 2002">{{cite journal|last=Raustiala|first=K|title=The Architecture of International Co-operation: Trans-governmental Networks and the Future of International Law|journal=Virginia Journal of International Law|year=2002|volume=43|issue=1|pages=1–92}}</ref> are celebrated for their work in transnational governance networks in global governance for its importance of development in globalisation. The CCP program is the most influential example of this celebratory work along the climate scale, as a public transnational governance network, involving public authorities in governance across both local and global scales. The CCP program as a transnational governance network exemplifies how boundaries of formal intergovernmental diplomacy are over-reached, engaging in public authoritative steering in seeking to address the mitigation of GHG emissions, at a local scale.<ref name="Andonova et al, 2009" /> As a transnational governance network, the CCP program network is a crucial means in improving municipal performance in respect to climate change. The networks aid onin facilitating the process by offering ways for members to contact each other, in circumstances that may involve a joint bid for climate change project funding, or for submitting bids individually.<ref name="Kern & Bulkeley, 2009">{{cite journal|last=Kern|first=Kristine|author2=Bulkeley, H|title=Cities, Europeanisation and Multi-level Governance: Governing Climate Change through Transnational Municipal Networks|journal=Journal of Common Market Studies|year=2009|volume=47|issue=2|pages=309–332|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5965.2009.00806.x|s2cid=154784408 }}</ref>

=== CCP Cities in Maintaining their Transnational Governance Network ===

Key to securing transnational governance network participation are CCP cities whomwhich see the program as a means of promoting their interests, values and norms in regards toregarding climate change at a local scale. In maintaining a valuable, worthwhile, and effective GHG emissions reductionsreduction governance network, member CCP cities must establish open connections within the network, creating solid network interactions.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> Member cities illustrating open connections toward the CCP program, through the active involvement of continual monitoring and reporting of energy use, and participation in CCP program workshops, often gain additional financial resources from the network.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> Alone, the production and exchange of information from CCP cities is insufficient in maintaining a transnational network. Forged on the basis of financial and political resources are offered to member cities by the CCP program, based on the formation of close network links, openly connected member cities receive legitimacy of their ideas, creation of knowledge for local climate protection and shared norms, rather than the reliance upon the dissemination of technical information actively sought upon by less connected CCP cities. In maintaining a significant connection as a CCP city within a transnational governance network, members must not exclusively rely upon the dissemination of information, but rather build upon knowledge, norms and resources linked within the process of building and maintaining networks.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" />

== Benefits and Successes of the CCP programProgram as a Transnational Governance Network ==

As a transnational governance network, joining as a CCP member city is a benefit to athe city in itself. Advantages for CCP cities account for exchanges of experience, access to funding and political kudos, and the development of direct links between CCP member cities from the local to international level.<ref name="Kern & Bulkeley, 2009"/> CCP cities have benefited personally, able to voice concerns, interact and learn within a supportive environment, and gain international experience and access to financial resources whilst promoting interests within local government.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> ). In some cases, Leicester and Newcastle, UK, the CCP program has given enhanced political kudos, creating opportunities for matters of energy and climate mitigation strategies to rise on their local agendas.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> ). Initiatives undertaken by CCP cities have gained national and international recognition, proving to be a valued resource provided by the transnational governance network.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" /> Newcastle, New South Wales and Denver, US, were cities that already had climate change inventories on their local agendas before joining the CCP program network. Only by participating in the transnational governance network were their climate change ethoses and inventories reinforced through their membership. By offering itself up, the CCP program, as a transnational network has been successful in building local capacity, due to the political and financial resources obtained through close membership within the network. Individuals benefiting from this position have been able to allow climate change mitigation strategies to join in line with issues of local significance allowing for the need to responsibly tackle global issues at a local scale.<ref name="Betsill, M. M. & Bulkeley, H. 2004" />

Crucially, while it is seen single local government action on reducing GHG emissions may be relatively ineffective, working together under a transnational governance network frame collectively, such as the CCP cities, can make an important contribution towards the reduction and mitigation of global climate change.<ref name="Fay, 2007">{{cite journal|last=Fay|first=Chris|title=Think Locally, Act Globally: Lessons to Learn from the Cities for Climate Protection Campaign|journal=Innovations|year=2007|volume=7|pages=1–12|citeseerx=10.1.1.483.3390}}</ref> An example of a CCP success story is Denver, US. After joining the CCP program, Denver's municipal government invested $1.6million into installing light-emitting diodes (LEDs) into all red traffic lights and ‘don’t walk’ signs across the city. The LEDs, having longer life spans and lower energy requirements, led to a $5million savings in energy use and maintenance for the city.<ref name="Fay, 2007"/>