Models of communication: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 07:39, 27 September 2024

Revision as of 16:08, 7 October 2024

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=== Linear transmission ===

[[File:Linearmodel.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Linear transmission model{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}]]

Linear transmission models describe communication as a one-way process. In it, a sender intentionally conveys a message to a receiver. The reception of the message is the endpoint of this process. Since there is no feedback loop, the sender may not know whether the message reached its intended destination. Most early models were transmission models. Due to their linear nature, they are often too simple to capture the dynamic aspects of various forms of communication, such as regular face-to-face conversation.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}} By focusing only on the sender, they leave out the audience's perspective. For example, listening usually does not just happen, but is an active process involving [[Understanding|listening skills]] and interpretation.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15–17]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} However, some forms of communication can be accurately described by them, such as many types of [[computer-mediated communication]]. This applies, for example, to [[text messaging]], sending an email, posting a blog, or sharing something on social media.{{sfn|UMN staff|2013|loc=[https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/1-2-the-communication-process/ 1.2 The Communication Process]}}{{sfn|Kastberg|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=esLDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA56 56]}}{{sfn|Manuela|Clara|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FjFtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} Some theorists, like Uma Narula, talk of "action models" instead of linear transmission models to stress how they only focus on the actions of the sender.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 15]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}} Linear transmission models include Aristotle's, [[Lasswell's model of communication|Lasswell]]'s, [[Shannon–Weaver model|Shannon-Weaver]]'s and [[Source-Message-Channel-Receiver model of communication|Berlo]]'s model.{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 438]|loc=transmission models}}{{sfn|Cobley|Schulz|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6xrNrpSZKxsC&pg=PA41 41]}}{{sfn|Hakanen|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oFHgZaiNhWUC&pg=PA28 28]}}

=== Interaction ===

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=== Newcomb ===

[[File:Newcomb's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1|alt=Diagram of Newcomb's model of communication|The basic components of Newcomb's model are two communicators (A and B) and a topic (X). The arrows symbolize the orientations the communicators have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 394]}}]]

Newcomb's model was first published by Theodore H. Newcomb in his 1953 paper "An approach to the study of communicative acts".{{sfn|Newcomb|1953|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/NEWAAT-4 393–404]}}{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} It is called the ABX model of communication since it understands communication in terms of three components: two parties (A and B) interacting with each other about a topic or object (X). A and B can be persons or groups, such as trade unions or nations. X can be any part of their shared environment like a specific thing or another person.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}} The ABX model differs from earlier models by focusing on the [[social relation]] between the communicators in the form of the orientations or attitudes they have toward each other and toward the topic.{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} The orientations can be favorable or unfavorable and include beliefs. They have a big impact on how communication unfolds. It is relevant, for example, whether A and B like each other and whether they have the same attitude towards X.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 33]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Fiske|2011|p=[https://www.routledge.com/Introduction-to-Communication-Studies/Fiske/p/book/9780415596497 31–32]|loc=2. Other models}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}}

Newcomb understands communication as a "learned response to strain" caused by discrepancies between orientations.{{sfn|Mcquail|Windahl|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hLpACwAAQBAJ&pg=PA27 27–8]}} The social function of communication is to maintain equilibrium in the [[social system]] by keeping the different orientations in balance.{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}} In Newcomb's words, communication enables "two or more individuals to maintain simultaneous orientation to each other and towards objects of the external environment".{{sfn|Watson|Hill|2012|p=195–6|loc=Newcomb's ABX model of communication}} The orientations of A and B are subject to change and influence each other. Significant discrepancies between them, such as divergent opinions on X, cause a strain in the relation. In such cases, communication aims to reduce the strain and restore balance through the exchange of information about the object.{{sfn|Feather|1967|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H4ardmrt5rkC&pg=PA135 135–7]}}{{sfn|Gałajda|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FXkoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5]}}{{sfn|Ahmet|Can|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53–4]}} For example, if A and B are friends and X is someone both know, then equilibrium means that they have the same attitude towards X. However, there is a disequilibrium or strain if A likes X but B does not. This creates a tendency for A and B to exchange information about X until they arrive at a shared attitude. The more important X is to A and B, the more urgent this tendency is.{{sfn|Fiske|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kfEtCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29–32]}}

[[File:Westley and MacLean's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Diagram of Westley and MacLean's model of communication|Westley and MacLean's expansion of Newcomb's model.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 33]}}]]

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{{main|Schramm's model of communication}}

[[File:Schramm's model of communication.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Schramm's model of communication differs from earlier models by including a feedback loop.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 8]|loc=How communication works}}]]

Schramm's model of communication is one of the earliest interaction models of communication.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}{{sfn|Steinberg|1995|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VPs3kidEqXYC&pg=PA18 18]}}{{sfn|Bowman|Targowski|1987|p=21–34}} It was published by [[Wilbur Schramm]] in 1954 as a response to and an improvement over linear transmission models of communication, such as Lasswell's model and the Shannon–Weaver model.{{sfn|Liu|Volcic|Gallois|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QfSICwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38]}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 52]}} The main difference in this regard is that Schramm does not see the audience as passive recipients. Instead, he understands them as active participants that respond by sending their own message as a form of feedback.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Bowman|Targowski|1987|p=21–34}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 4, 7–9, 16]|loc=How communication works}} Feedback forms part of many types of communication and makes it easier for the participants to identify and resolve possible misunderstandings.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}

[[File:Schramm's model - fields of experience.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|One requirement of successful communication is that the message is located in the overlap of the fields of experience of the participants.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6]|loc=How communication works}}]]

For Schramm, communication is based on the relation between a source and a destination and consists in sharing ideas or information.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Ruben|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Fm5QDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} For this to happen, the source has to encode their idea in symbolic form as a message.{{sfn|Littlejohn|Foss|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA176 176]}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Moore|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–1]}} This message is sent to the destination using a channel, such as sound waves or ink on paper.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5]|loc=How communication works}} The destination has to decode and interpret the message in order to reconstruct the original idea. The processes of encoding and decoding correspond to the roles of transmitter and receiver in the Shannon–Weaver model.{{sfn|SchwartzLiu|2010Volcic|pGallois|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJQfSICwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52PA36 5236–38]}} According to Schramm, these processes are influenced by the fields of [[experience]] of each participant. A field of experience includes past life experiences and affects what the participant understands and is familiar with.{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6–7]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Dwyer|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xhHiBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10]}} Communication fails if the message is outside the receiver's field of experience. In this case, the receiver is unable to decode it and connect it to the sender's idea.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 6–8]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Moore|1994|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=icMsdAGHQpEC&pg=PA90 90–1]}}{{sfn|Meng|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b0HWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 120]}} Other sources of error are external noise or mistakes in the phases of decoding and encoding.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 3–5, 13–16]|loc=How communication works}} Schramm holds that successful communication is about realizing an intended effect. He discusses the conditions for this to be possible. They include making sure that one has the receiver's [[attention]], that the message is understandable, and that the audience is able and motivated to react to the message in the intended way.{{sfn|Schramm|1954|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ 13]|loc=How communication works}}{{sfn|Babe|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YAKeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 90]}}

In the 1970s, Schramm proposed modifications to his original model to take into account the discoveries made in [[communication studies]] in the preceding decades.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Blythe|2009}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=6}} His new approach gives special emphasis to the relation between the participants. The relation determines the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants.{{sfn|Narula|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AuRyXwyAJ78C 22, 30–31]|loc=1. Basic Communication Models}}{{sfn|Chandler|Munday|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nLuJz-ZB828C 364]|loc=relational models}}{{sfn|Schramm|1971|p=7-8}}

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{{refbegin|20em}}

* {{cite book |last1=Agunga |first1=Robert |title=Communication for Social Change Anthology: Historical and Contemporary Readings |date=2006 |publisher=CFSC Consortium, Inc. |isbn=9780977035793 |page=381 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85WbPmx9QlcC&pg=PA381 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Ahmet |first1=Bayraktar |last2=Can |first2=Uslay |title=Strategic Place Branding Methodologies and Theory for Tourist Attraction |date=15 August 2016 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=9781522505808 |pages=53–4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lffZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Babe |first1=Robert E. |title=Wilbur Schramm and Noam Chomsky Meet Harold Innis: Media, Power, and Democracy |date=21 April 2015 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=9781498506823 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YAKeCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Balda |first1=Russell P. |last2=Pepperberg |first2=Irene M. |last3=Kamil |first3=A. C. |title=Animal Cognition in Nature: The Convergence of Psychology and Biology in Laboratory and Field |date=9 September 1998 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-08-052723-9 |pages=227–9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=504iRS01AK0C&pg=PA227 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

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* {{cite book |last1=Lock |first1=Andy |last2=Strong |first2=Tom |title=Social Constructionism: Sources and Stirrings in Theory and Practice |date=25 March 2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48736-8 |pages=122–123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nASJ5WEMsKMC&pg=PA122 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Mannan |first1=Zahed |title=Business Communication: Strategies for Success in Business and Professions |date=20 October 2013 |publisher=University Grants Commission, Bangladesh |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G-slBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT19 |language=en |isbn=9780873934992 }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Manuela |first1=Epure |last2=Clara |first2=Mihaes, Lorena |title=The Role of Language and Symbols in Promotional Strategies and Marketing Schemes |date=28 September 2018 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=9781522557791 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FjFtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |language=en |page=2 }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Marsh |first1=Patrick O. |title=Messages that Work: A Guide to Communication Design |date=1983 |publisher=Educational Technology |isbn=9780877781844 |page=358 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wtpgvb6o94C&pg=PA358 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=McKeown |first1=Neil |title=Case Studies and Projects in Communication |date=12 August 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781134954148 |pages=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1f6JAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

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* {{cite book |last1=Schramm |first1=Wilbur |title=The Process and Effects of Mass Communication - Revised Edition |date=1971 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=112wAAAAIAAJ |language=en |chapter=The Nature of Communication between Humans |pages=3–53 |isbn=978-0252001970 }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Schramm |first1=Wilbur |title=The Process and Effects of Mass Communication |date=1954 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z2aaAQAACAAJ |language=en |chapter=How communication works |pages=3–26 |isbn=9780252001970 }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Schwartz |first1=David |title=Encyclopedia of Knowledge Management, Second Edition |date=31 July 2010 |publisher=IGI Global |isbn=9781599049328 |page=52 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K92eBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA52 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}

* {{cite book |last1=Scott |first1=John |last2=Marshall |first2=Gordon |title=A Dictionary of Sociology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-953300-8 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100515181;jsessionid=A1623E3458FCA323C4BDA9C013BE7253 |language=en |chapter=social constructionism }}

* {{cite book |last1=Selnow |first1=Gary W. |last2=Crano |first2=William D. |title=Planning, Implementing, and Evaluating Targeted Communication Programs: A Manual for Business Communicators |date=1987 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-89930-208-9 |page=124 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usrTIGmPucEC&pg=PA124 |language=en }}{{cbignore}}