Computing: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 14:18, 15 November 2024

Revision as of 14:14, 19 November 2024

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==Research and emerging technologies==

{{further|List of unsolved problems in computer science}}

[[DNA computing|DNA-based computing]] and [[quantum computing]] are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of [[quantum algorithm]]s. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes [[DNA origami]] on photolithography<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kershner | first1 = Ryan J. | last2 = Bozano | first2 = Luisa D. | last3 = Micheel | first3 = Christine M. | last4 = Hung | first4 = Albert M. | last5 = Fornof | first5 = Ann R. | last6 = Cha | first6 = Jennifer N. | last7 = Rettner | first7 = Charles T. | last8 = Bersani | first8 = Marco | last9 = Frommer | first9 = Jane | last10 = Rothemund | first10 = Paul W. K. | last11 = Wallraff | first11 = Gregory M. | year = 2009 | title = Placement and orientation of individual DNA shapes on lithographically patterned surfaces | journal = [[Nature Nanotechnology]] | volume = 4| issue = 9| pages = 557–561| doi = 10.1038/nnano.2009.220 | pmid = 19734926 | bibcode = 2009NatNa...4..557K | citeseerx = 10.1.1.212.9767 }} [http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/vaop/ncurrent/extref/nnano.2009.220-s1.pdf supplementary information: DNA origami on photolithography]</ref> and [[quantum antennaeantenna]]e for transferring information between ion traps.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature09800 | volume=471 | title=Trapped-ion antennae for the transmission of quantum information | year=2011 | journal=Nature | pages=200–203 | last1 = Harlander | first1 = M.| issue = 7337 | pmid = 21346764 | arxiv = 1011.3639 | bibcode = 2011Natur.471..200H | s2cid = 4388493 }}

*{{cite press release |date=26 February 2011 |title=Atomic antennas transmit quantum information across a microchip |website=ScienceDaily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110223133444.htm}}</ref> By 2011, researchers had [[Qubit#Quantum entanglement|entangled]] 14 [[qubit]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.130506 | volume=106 | title=14-Qubit Entanglement: Creation and Coherence | year=2011 | journal=Physical Review Letters | last1 = Monz | first1 = Thomas| issue=13 | pmid=21517367 | arxiv=1009.6126 | bibcode=2011PhRvL.106m0506M | page=130506 | s2cid=8155660 }}

</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=20823.php|title=World record: Calculations with 14 quantum bits|website=www.nanowerk.com}}</ref> Fast [[digital circuit]]s, including those based on [[Josephson junction]]s and [[rapid single flux quantum]] technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of [[nanoscale superconductor]]s.<ref>Saw-Wai Hla et al., ''Nature Nanotechnology'' 31 March 2010 [http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/ "World's smallest superconductor discovered"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528133148/http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/ |date=28 May 2010 }}. Four pairs of certain molecules have been shown to form a nanoscale superconductor, at a dimension of 0.87 [[nanometer]]s. Access date 31 March 2010</ref>

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=== Cloud computing ===

Cloud computing is a technology model that enablesallows usersfor tothe accessuse of computing resources, likesuch as servers or applications, overwithout the internet withoutneed directfor interaction withbetween the resource owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically providedoffered as a service, undermaking modelsit likean example of [[Software as a Serviceservice|SaaSSoftware as a Service]], [[Platform as a Serviceservice|PaaSPlatforms as a Service]], and [[Infrastructure as a Serviceservice|IaaSInfrastructure as a Service]]., Keydepending featureson ofthe cloudfunctionality computingoffered. Key characteristics include on-demand availabilityaccess, widespreadbroad network access, and the capability of rapid scalabilityscaling.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing|date=September 2011|work=U.S. Department of Commerce}}</ref> This modelIt allows individual users andor small businessesbusiness to leveragebenefit from [[economies of scale]] effectively.

A significantOne area of interest in cloudthis computingfield is its potential forto improvingsupport energy efficiency. ByAllowing enablingthousands multipleof computinginstances of taskscomputation to runoccur on aone single machine ratherinstead thanof multiplethousands devices,of cloudindividual computingmachines cancould reducehelp overallsave energy consumption. It could also facilitatesease the adoptiontransition ofto renewable energy sourcessource, bysince consolidatingit energywould demandssuffice intoto centralizedpower one server farmsfarm insteadwith ofrenewable individualenergy, rather than millions of homes and offices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Berl|first1=A.|last2=Gelenbe|first2=E.|last3=Girolamo|first3=M. Di|last4=Giuliani|first4=G.|last5=Meer|first5=H. De|last6=Dang|first6=M. Q.|last7=Pentikousis|first7=K.|date=September 2010|title=Energy-Efficient Cloud Computing|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8130358|journal=The Computer Journal|volume=53|issue=7|pages=1045–1051|doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxp080|issn=1460-2067}}</ref>

However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufman|first=L. M.|date=July 2009|title=Data Security in the World of Cloud Computing|journal=IEEE Security Privacy|volume=7|issue=4|pages=61–64|doi=10.1109/MSP.2009.87|s2cid=16233643|issn=1558-4046}}</ref>

=== Quantum computing ===

[[Quantum computing]] is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steane|first=Andrew|date=1 February 1998|title=Quantum computing|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=117–173|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/61/2/002|issn=0034-4885|bibcode=1998RPPh...61..117S|arxiv=quant-ph/9708022|s2cid=119473861}}</ref> Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses [[qubit]]s. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as [[quantum entanglement]], and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Horodecki|first1=Ryszard|last2=Horodecki|first2=Paweł|last3=Horodecki|first3=Michał|last4=Horodecki|first4=Karol|date=17 June 2009|title=Quantum entanglement|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics|volume=81|issue=2|pages=865–942|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.81.865|bibcode=2009RvMP...81..865H|arxiv=quant-ph/0702225|s2cid=59577352}}</ref> Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in [[Molecular modelling|molecular modeling]]. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.<ref>{{Cite journal |title= Quantum Computing for Molecular Biology*|journal=ChemBioChem |date=3 July 2023 |volume=24 |issue=13 |doi=10.1002/cbic.202300120 |url=https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cbic.202300120 |last1=Baiardi |first1=Alberto |last2=Christandl |first2=Matthias |last3=Reiher |first3=Markus |pages=e202300120 |pmid=37151197 |arxiv=2212.12220 }}</ref>

[[Quantum computing]] is an interdisciplinary field combining aspects of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. Unlike traditional computing, which uses binary bits (0 and 1), quantum computing relies on qubits. Qubits can exist in a superposition, being in both states (0 and 1) simultaneously. This property, coupled with [[quantum entanglement]], forms the foundation of quantum computing, enabling large-scale computations that exceed the capabilities of classical systems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steane|first=Andrew|date=1 February 1998|title=Quantum computing|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=117–173|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/61/2/002|issn=0034-4885|bibcode=1998RPPh...61..117S|arxiv=quant-ph/9708022|s2cid=119473861}}</ref>

Quantum computing is especially suited for solving complex scientific problems that traditional computers cannot handle, such as [[Molecular modelling|molecular modeling]]. Simulating large molecular reactions is computationally intensive, but quantum computers have the potential to perform these calculations efficiently.<ref>{{Cite journal |title= Quantum Computing for Molecular Biology*|journal=ChemBioChem |date=3 July 2023 |volume=24 |issue=13 |doi=10.1002/cbic.202300120 |url=https://chemistry-europe.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cbic.202300120 |last1=Baiardi |first1=Alberto |last2=Christandl |first2=Matthias |last3=Reiher |first3=Markus |pages=e202300120 |pmid=37151197 |arxiv=2212.12220 }}</ref>

==See also==